Persecution of Muslims
Freedom of religion | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Status by country
|
||||||||||
Religion portal | ||||||||||
Persecution of Muslims is the religious persecution inflicted upon the followers of the Islamic faith. This page lists incidents of ethnic cleansing in both medieval and modern history in which Muslim populations have been targeted by non-Muslim groups.
Medieval
Early Islam
In the early days of Islam at Mecca, the new Muslims were often subjected to abuse and persecution by the pagan Meccans (often called Mushrikin: the unbelievers or polytheists). Some were killed, such as Sumayyah bint Khabbab, the seventh convert to Islam, who was allegedly tortured first by Amr ibn Hishām.[1][2] Even Muhammad was subjected to such abuse; while he was praying near the Kaaba, Aqaba Bin Muiitt threw the entrails of a sacrificed camel over him. Abu Lahab's wife Umm Jamil would regularly dump filth outside his door and placed thorns in the path to his house.[3]
Accordingly, if free Muslims were attacked, slaves who converted were subjected to far worse. The master of the Ethiopian Bilal ibn Rabah (who would become the first muezzin) would take him out into the desert in the boiling heat of midday and place a heavy rock on his chest, demanding that he forswear his religion and pray to the polytheists' gods and goddesses, until Abu Bakr bought him and freed him.[4][5]
Crusades
The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II, with the stated goal of regaining control of the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslims, who had captured them from the Byzantines in 638, and who by 1050 destroyed the main Christian shrines and churches in Jerusalem. The Muslim leader, Al Hakim of Cairo blew up the ancient and magnificent Constantine Church of the Holy Sepulcher in 1009, as well as most other Christian churches and shrines in the Holy Land.
This, in conjunction with the killings of Germanic pilgrims traveling to Jerusalem from Byzantium, raised the anger of Europe, and inspired Pope Urban II to call on all Catholic Rulers, Knights and Gentleman to recapture the Holy Land from Muslim rule.
It was also partly a response to the Investiture Controversy, which was the most significant conflict between secular and religious powers in medieval Europe. The controversy began as a dispute between the Holy Roman Emperor and the Gregorian Papacy and gave rise to the political concept of Christendom as a union of all peoples and sovereigns under the direction of the pope; as both sides tried to marshal public opinion in their favor, people became personally engaged in a dramatic religious controversy. Also of great significance in launching the crusade were the string of victories by the Seljuk Turks, which saw the end of Arab rule in Jerusalem.
On 7 May 1099 the crusaders reached Jerusalem, which had been recaptured from the Seljuks by the Fatimids of Egypt only a year before. On 15 July, the crusaders were able to end the siege by breaking down sections of the walls and entering the city. Over the course of that afternoon, evening and next morning, the crusaders killed almost every inhabitant of Jerusalem. Muslims and Jews alike. Although many Muslims sought shelter atop the Temple Mount inside the Al-Aqsa Mosque, the crusaders spared few lives. According to the anonymous Gesta Francorum, in what some believe to be one of the most valuable contemporary sources of the First Crusade, "...the slaughter was so great that our men waded in blood up to their ankles...."[6] Tancred claimed the Temple quarter for himself and offered protection to some of the Muslims there, but he was unable to prevent their deaths at the hands of his fellow crusaders. According to Fulcher of Chartres: "Indeed, if you had been there you would have seen our feet coloured to our ankles with the blood of the slain. But what more shall I relate? None of them were left alive; neither women nor children were spared."[7]
During the First Crusade and the massacre at Jerusalem, it has been reported that the Crusaders "[circled] the screaming, flame-tortured humanity singing 'Christ We Adore Thee!' with their Crusader crosses held high".[8] Muslims were indiscriminately killed, and Jews who had taken refuge in their Synagogue were killed when it was burnt down by the Crusaders.
Italy
The island of Sicily was early on targeted by the Muslims, the first raid occurring in 652, only a few years after the establishment of the first Muslim navy. Following the onset of Muslim attacks against North Africa, it became a crucial strategic base, and for a while, in 661–668, it was the residence of the imperial court under Constans II. Constituted as a theme around 690, its governing strategos also came to assume control over the scattered imperial possessions in the southern Italian mainland. The island was raided thereafter, especially in the first half of the 8th century, but did not come under serious threat until the Muslims completed their conquest of North Africa and moved into Hispania as well. Sicily had been raided by the Muslims since the mid-7th century. With the aid of reinforcements from Ifriqiya and al-Andalus, in 831 they took Palermo, which became the capital of the new Muslim province. The fall of Palermo marks a decisive step in the Muslim conquest of Sicily: the Muslims gained not only an important military base, but possession of the city—henceforth known simply as al-Madina ("the City")—allowed them to consolidate their control over the western portion of the island. The city suffered greatly during the siege; the Arab historian Ibn al-Athir, records with exaggeration that the city's population fell from 70,000 to 3,000, who were taken as slaves. The fall of the last major Byzantine fortress, Taormina, in 902, is held to mark the completion of the Muslim conquest-jihad of Sicily. At first, the Muslim populations did well in Sicily in the first 100 years after the Norman conquest which ended their colonial Emirate of Sicily. Arabs remained privileged in the matters of government. Indeed, 4000 Saracen archers took part in various battles between Christian forces. When the Normans and later the House of Anjou lost control of the Island to Peter of Aragon, Islam began to decline. Norman rulers followed a policy of steadily Latinization (converting the island to Catholicism). Some Muslims chose the option of feigning conversion, but such a remedy could only provide individual protection and could not sustain a community.[9]
Lombard pogroms against Muslims started in the 1160s. Muslim and Christian communities in Sicily became increasingly geographically separated. The island’s Muslim communities were mainly isolated beyond an internal frontier which divided the south-western half of the island from the Christian north-east. Sicilian Muslims, a subject population, were dependent on royal protection. When King William the Good died in 1189, this royal protection was lifted, and the door was opened for widespread attacks against the island’s Muslims. Islam was no longer a major presence in the Island by the 14th century. Toleration of Muslims ended with Increasing Hohenstaufen control. Many repressive measures, passed by Frederick II, were introduced in order to please the Popes who could not tolerate Islam being practiced in the heart of Christendom,[10] which resulted in a rebellion of Sicily's Muslims.[11] This in turn triggered organized resistance and systematic reprisals[12] and marked the final chapter of Islam in Sicily. The rebellion abated, but direct papal pressure induced Frederick to mass transfer all his Muslim subjects deep into the Italian hinterland, to Lucera.[11]
In 1224, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, responding to religious uprisings in Sicily, expelled all Muslims from the island, transferring many to Lucera (Lugêrah, as it was known in Arabic) over the next two decades. In this controlled environment, they could not challenge royal authority and they benefited the crown in taxes and military service. Their numbers eventually reached between 15,000 and 20,000, leading Lucera to be called Lucaera Saracenorum because it represented the last stronghold of Islamic presence in Italy. During peacetime, Muslims in Lucera were predominantly farmers. They grew durum wheat, barley, legumes, grapes and other fruits. Muslims also kept bees for honey.[13]
The Lucera colony thrived for 75 years until it was sacked in 1300 by Christian forces under the command of Charles II of Naples. The majority of the city's Muslim inhabitants were slaughtered or – as happened to almost 10,000 of them – sold into slavery,[14] or exiled, with many finding asylum in Albania across the Adriatic Sea.[15] Their abandoned mosques were demolished, and churches were usually built in their place, including the cathedral of S. Maria della Vittoria.[16]
Mongol invasions
Genghis Khan, and the following Yuan Emperors in China forbade Islamic practices like halal butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret.[17] Genghis Khan directly called Muslims "slaves", and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. Circumcision was also forbidden.[18][19] Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim generals joined Han Chinese in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang had Muslim generals like Lan Yu who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had the name "kamsia," which, in Hokkien Chinese, means "thank you"; many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Han Chinese for assisting them.[20] The Muslims in the Semu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the Ispah Rebellion but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding.
Following the brutal Mongol invasion of Central Asia under Genghis Khan, and after the sack of Baghdad, the Mongol Empire's rule extended across most Muslim lands in Asia. The Abbasid caliphate was destroyed and the Islamic civilization, especially Mesopotamia, suffered much devastation and was replaced by Tengriism and Buddhism as the official religion of the empire.[21] However, the Mongols attacked people for goods and riches and not because of their religion. Many later Mongol khans and rulers became Muslims themselves like Oljeitu and other Ilkhanid and Golden Horde rulers and inhabitants. There was no real effort to replace Islam with any other religion, but to plunder goods from anyone that didn't submit, which was characteristic to Mongol warfare. During the Yuan Dynasty that the Mongols founded, Muslim scientists were highly regarded and Muslim beliefs were respected in the Yuan Dynasty. On the Mongol attacks, the Muslim historian, ibn al-Athir lamented:
I shrank from giving a recital of these events on the account of their magnitude and abhorrence. Even now I come reluctant to the task, for who would deem it a light thing to sing the death song of Islam and the Muslims or find it easy to tell this tale? O that my mother had not given me birth![22]
Among the detailed atrocities include:
- The Grand Library of Baghdad, containing countless precious historical documents and books on subjects ranging from medicine to astronomy, was destroyed. Survivors said that the waters of the Tigris ran black with ink from the enormous quantities of books flung into the river.
- Citizens attempted to flee, but were intercepted by Mongol soldiers who killed with abandon. Martin Sicker writes that close to 90,000 people may have died (Sicker 2000, p. 111). Other estimates go much higher. Wassaf claims the loss of life was several hundred thousand. Ian Frazier of The New Yorker says estimates of the death toll have ranged from 200,000 to a million.[23]
- The Mongols looted and then destroyed mosques, palaces, libraries, and hospitals. Grand buildings that had been the work of generations were burned to the ground.
- The caliph was captured and forced to watch as his citizens were murdered and his treasury plundered. According to most accounts, the caliph was killed by trampling. The Mongols rolled the caliph up in a rug, and rode their horses over him, as they believed that the earth was offended if touched by royal blood. All but one of his sons were killed, and the sole surviving son was sent to Mongolia.
- Hulagu had to move his camp upwind of the city, due to the stench of decay from the ruined city.
At the intervention of the Mongol Hulagu's Nestorian Christian wife, Dokuz Khatun, the Christian inhabitants were spared.[24][25] Hulagu offered the royal palace to the Nestorian Catholicos Mar Makikha, and ordered a cathedral to be built for him.[26] Ultimately, the seventh ruler of the Ilkhanate dynasty, Mahmud Ghazan, converted to Islam from Tengrism, and thus began the gradual trend of the decline of Tengrism and Buddhism in the region and renaissance of Islam. Later, three of the four principal Mongol khanates embraced Islam.[27]
Iberian Peninsula
Arabs relying largely on Berbers conquered the Iberian Peninsula starting in 711, subduing the whole Visigothic Kingdom by 725. The triumphant Umayyads got conditional capitulations probably in most of the towns, so that they could get a compromise with the native population. This was not always so. For example, Mérida, Cordova, Toledo, or Narbonne were conquered by storm or after laying siege on them. The arrangement reached with the locals was based on respecting the laws and traditions used in each place, so that the Goths (a legal concept, not an ethnic one, i.e. the communities ruled by the Forum Iudicum) continued to be ruled on new conditions by their own tribunals and laws.[28] The Gothic Church remained in place and collaborated with the new masters. Al-Andalus or Muslim ruled Iberian peninsula, was conquered by northern Christian kingdoms in 1492, as a result of their expansion taking place especially after the definite collapse of the Caliphate of Cordova in 1031.
The coming of the Crusades (starting with the massacre of Barbastro) and similarly entrenched positions on the northern African Almoravids, who took over al-Andalus as of 1086, added to the difficult coexistence between communities, including Muslims in Christian ruled territory, or the Mozarabic rite Christians (quite different from those of the northern kingdoms), and further minority groups. The Almohads, a fanatic north African sect, pushed the boundaries of religious intolerance during their occupation of al-Andalus, affecting also the Jews.[29]
During the expansion south of the northern Christian kingdoms, depending on the local capitulations, local Muslims were allowed to remain (Mudéjars) with some restrictions, while some were assimilated into the Christian faith. After the conquest of Granada, all the Spanish Muslims were under Christian rule. The new acquired population spoke Arabic or Mozarabic, and the campaigns to convert them were unsuccessful. Legislation was gradually introduced to remove Islam, culminating with the Muslims being forced to convert to Catholicism by the Spanish Inquisition. They were known as Moriscos and considered New Christians. Further laws were introduced, as on 25 May 1566, stipulating that they 'had to abandon the use of Arabic, change their costumes, that their doors must remain open every Friday, and other feast days, and that their baths, public and private, to be torn down.'[30] The reason doors were to be left open so as to determine whether they secretly observed any Islamic festivals.[31] King Philip II of Spain ordered the destruction of all public baths on the grounds of them being relics of infidelity, notorious for their use by Muslims performing their purification rites.[32][33] The possession of books or papers in Arabic was near concrete proof of disobedience with severe repercussions.[34] On 1 January 1568, Christian priests were ordered to take all Morisco children between the ages of three and fifteen, and place them in schools, where they should learn Castillian and Christian doctrine.[35] All these laws and measures required force to be implemented, and from much earlier.
Between 1609 and 1614 the Moriscos were expelled from Spain.[36] They were to depart 'under the pain of death and confiscation, without trial or sentence... to take with them no money, bullion, jewels or bills of exchange... just what they could carry.'[37]
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Lipka Tatars, also known as Polish Tatars or Lithuanian Tatars, were a community of Tatar Muslims who migrated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and became Polonized.
The Counter-Reformation of the Catholic Church in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth led to persecution of Muslims, Jews, and Orthodox Christians. The ways the Muslims were persecuted included banning the repair of old mosques and preventing new ones from being constructed, banning serfdom of Christians under Muslims, banning marriage of Christian females to Muslims, putting limitations on property ownership among Tatars and the Ottoman-Polish conflict fed into the discriminatory atmosphere against them and led to anti-Islamic writings and attacks.[38]
Sikhs and Sikh Empire
Following the Sikh occupation of Samana in 1709, the Sikh army participated in a massacre of the city's residents. 10,000 unarmed Muslim men and women were slain.[39] Following the Siege of Sirhind, Banda Singh Bahadur ordered that all men, women and children be executed.[39] All residents of Sirhind, whether they were men, women or children were all burned alive or slain.[39] In December 1757, Sikhs pillaged the Doab and the city of Jullunder.[40] During this pillaging, "Children were put to the sword, women were dragged out and forcibly converted to Sikhism" and Mosques were defiled by pigs blood.[40] The body of Nassir Ali was dug out by Sikhs and flesh was thrust into it.[40]
Ranjit Singh went to Peshawar and pillaged the city, cut down trees for which the city was famous, burnt the palace of Bala Hissar and its mosque was defiled. Diwan Chand became the first Hindu Governor of Kashmir after 1354AD and enacted dozens of anti-Muslim laws. He raised the tax on Muslims, demolished the Jama Masjid of Srinagar and prohibited cow slaughter. The punishment for cow slaughter was the death penalty without any exception. He abducted all the Pashtun and Uzbek women and infamously sold them at Hira Mandi, a very popular market in Lahore (the Sikh Empire Capital).[41][42][43] Maharaja Ranjit Singh in lieu of helping Shah Shuja the grandson of Ahmad Shah Durrani asked for the ban of cow slaughter in Afghanistan and with Ranjit Singh's help, Shuja regained the Kabul Throne and imposed a ban on cow slaughter in Kabul.[44]
Sayyid Ahmed Barelvi declared war against Maharaja Ranjit Singh and recruited many Muslims from madrassas. However the Yousufzai and Muhammadzai Khawaneen didn't like his egalitarian ideals and betrayed Sayyid Ahmed Shahid and his army at the battle of Balakot and supported the Sikh Army in the Battle of Balakote in 1831, and Barelvi's head was severed by Sikh General Hari Singh Nalwa.[45][46]
Muslims still revered Sayyid Ahmad, however he was defeated and killed in the battle by Sikh Forces commanded by Hari Singh Nalwa and Gulab Singh.[47] Raja Aggar Khan of Rajaouri was defeated, humiliated by the Ranjit Singh commander Gulab Singh and was brought to Lahore where he was beheaded by Gulab Singh of Jammu.[48]
Modern era
Asia Minor
In retaliation for the Armenian and Greek Genocides, many Muslims (Turkish and Kurdish) were killed by Russians and Armenians in Western Armenia (including Bayburt, Bitlis, Erzincan, Erzurum, Kars and Mus),[49][50] On May 14, 1919 the Greek army landed in Izmir (Smyrna) which marked the beginning of the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922). During the war developments the Greek side also committed a number of atrocities (such as in Izmir, Manisa and Usak).[51]
Johannes Kolmodin was a Swedish orientalist in Izmir. He wrote in his letters that the Greek army had burned 250 Turkish villages.[52]
Eastern Europe (Balkans)
As the Ottoman Empire entered a permanent phase of decline in the late 17th century it was engaged in a protracted state of conflict, losing territories both in Europe and the Caucasus. The victors were the Christian States, the old Habsburg and Romanov Empires and the new nation-states of Greece, Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria.[53] Rival European powers encouraged the development of nationalist ideologies among the Ottoman subjects in which the Muslims were portrayed as an ethnic "fifth column" leftover from a previous era that could not be integrated into the planned future states. The struggle to rid themselves of Ottomans became an important element of the self-identification of the Balkan Christians.[54]
According to Mark Levene, the Victorian public in the 1870s paid much more attention to the massacres and expulsions of Christians than to massacres and expulsions of Muslims, even if on a greater scale. He further suggests that such massacres were even favored by some circles. Mark Levene also argues that the dominant powers, by supporting "nation-statism" at the Congress of Berlin, legitimized "the primary instrument of Balkan nation-building": ethnic cleansing.[55] Hall points out that atrocities were committed by all sides during the Balkan conflicts. Deliberate terror was designed to instigate population movements out of particular territories. The aim of targeting the civilian population was to carve ethnically homogeneous countries.[56]
During the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792 the Russian Army commander Alexander Suvorov successfully besieged the fortress of Izmail on December 22, 1790. Ottoman forces inside the fortress had the orders to stand their ground to the end, haughtily declining the Russian ultimatum. Alexander Suvorov announced the capture of Ismail in 1791 to the Tsaritsa Catherine in a doggerel couplet, after the assault had been pressed from house to house, room to room, and nearly every Muslim man, woman, and child in the city had been killed in three days of uncontrolled massacre, 40,000 Turks dead, a few hundred taken into captivity. For all his bluffness, Suvorov later told an English traveller that when the massacre was over he went back to his tent and wept.[57]
Justin McCarty estimates that between 1821 and 1922 around five and a half million Muslims were driven out of Europe and five million more were killed or died of disease and starvation while fleeing.[58] Cleansing occurred as a result of the Serbian and Greek independence in the 1820s and 1830s, the Russo-Turkish War 1877–1878, and culminating in the Balkan Wars 1912–1913. Mann describes these acts as "murderous ethnic cleansing on stupendous scale not previously seen in Europe" referring to the 1914 Carnegie Endowment report.[59][60] It is estimated that at the turn of the 20th century there were 4,4 million Muslims living in the Balkan zone of Ottoman control.[61] More than one million Muslims left the Balkans in the last three decades of the 19th century.[62] Between 1912 and 1926 nearly 2.9 million Muslims were either killed or forced to emigrate to Turkey.[61]
Between 10,000[63] and 30,000[64][65][66] Turks were killed in Tripolitsa by Greek rebels in the summer of 1821, including the entire Jewish population of the city. Similar events as these occurred elsewhere during the Greek Revolution resulting in the eradication and expulsion of virtually the entire Turkish population of the Morea. These acts ensured the ethnic homogenization of the area under the rule of the future modern Greek state.[67] According to claims by Turkish delegations, in 1878 the Muslim inhabitants in Thessaly are estimated to be 150,000 and in 1897 the Muslims numbered 50,000 in Crete. By 1919 there were virtually no Muslims left in Thessaly and only 20,000 in Crete.[68]
In the Bulgarian insurgency of the April Uprising in 1876 an estimate of 1,000 Muslims were killed.[69][70] During the Russo-Turkish War a significant number of Turks were either killed, perished or became refugees. There are different estimates about the casualties of the war. Crampton describes an exodus of 130,000-150,000 expelled of which approximately half returned for an intermediary period encouraged by the Congress of Berlin. Hupchick and McCarthy point out that 260,000 perished and 500,000 became refugees.[71][72] The Turkish scholars Karpat and Ipek argue that up to 300,000 were killed and 1–1.5 million were forced to emigrate.[73][74] Members of the European press who covered the war in Bulgaria reported on the Russian atrocities against Muslims. Witness accounts from Schumla and Razgrad describe children, women and elderly wounded by sabres and lances. They stated that the entire Muslim population of many villages had been massacred.[75] Recently uncovered photographs in the archive of the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs from the Russo-Turkish War 1877–1878 show the massacre of Muslims by the Russians in the region of Stara Zagora claiming to have affected some 20,000 Muslim civilians.[76]
Massacres against Turks and Muslims during the Balkan Wars in the hands of Bulgarians, Greeks and Armenians are described in detail in the 1912 Carnegie Endowment report.[77] The Bulgarian violence during the Balkan War included burning of villages, transforming mosques into churches, rape of women and mutilation of bodies. It is estimated that 220,000 Pomaks were forcefully Christianized and forbidden to bear Islamic religious clothing.[78]
Bulgaria
Half a million Muslims succeeded in reaching Ottoman controlled lands and 672,215 were reported to have remained after the war. Approximately a quarter of a million perished from massacres, cold, disease and other harsh conditions.[79] According to Aubaret, the French Consul in Ruse in 1876 in the Danube Vilayet which also included Northern Dobruja in today's Romania, as well as substantial territory in today's southern Serbia, there were 1,120,000 Muslims and 1,233,500 non-Muslims of whom 1,150,000 were Bulgarian. Between 1876 and 1878, through massacres, epidemics, hunger and war a large portion of the Turkish population vanished.[80]
Cambodia
The Cham Muslims suffered serious purges with as much as half of their population exterminated by communists in Cambodia during the 1970s.[81] About half a million Muslims were killed. According to Cham sources, 132 mosques were destroyed during the Khmer Rouge. Only 20 of the previous 113 most prominent Cham clergy in Cambodia survived the Khmer Rouge period.[82]
China
The Dungan revolt erupted due to infighting between different Muslim Sufi sects, the Khafiya and the Jahariyya, and the Gedimu. When the rebellion failed, mass-immigration of the Dungan people into Imperial Russia, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan ensued. Before the war, the population of Shaanxi province totalled approximately 13 million inhabitants, at least 1,750,000 of whom were Dungan (Hui). After the war, the population dropped to 7 million; at least 150,000 fled. But once-flourishing Chinese Muslim communities fell 93% in the revolt in Shaanxi province. Between 1648 and 1878, around twelve million Hui and Han Chinese were killed in ten unsuccessful uprisings.[83][84]
The revolts were harshly suppressed by the Manchu government in a manner that amounts to genocide.[85][86][87][88] Approximately a million people in the Panthay rebellion were killed,[89][90] and several million in the Dungan revolt[90] as a "washing off the Muslims"(洗回 (xi Hui)) policy had been long advocated by officials in the Manchu government.[91] Many Chinese Muslim generals like Ma Zhanao, Ma Anliang, Ma Qianling, Dong Fuxiang, Ma Haiyan, and Ma Julung helped the Qing dynasty defeat the rebel Muslims, and were rewarded, and their followers were spared from the genocide. The Han Chinese Qing general Zuo Zongtang even relocated the Han from the suburbs Hezhou when the Muslims there surrendered as a reward so that Hezhou (now Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture) is still heavily Muslim to this day and is the most important city for Hui Muslims in China. The Muslims were granted amnesty and allowed to live as long as they stayed outside the city.[92] Some of the Muslims who fought, like General Dong, did not do it because they were Muslim, rather, like many other generals, they gathered bands of followers and fought at will.[93][94]
During the revolt, Uzbek Muslim forces under Yaqub Beg carried out massacres on Dungan Muslims. In one instance, they massacred Dungans in Ili, in the Battle of Ürümqi (1870). The Uzbeks even enlisted non-Muslim Han Chinese militia to help kill Dungans and conquer Xinjiang.[95]
Criticism
Various sources criticize the claims that the Dungan and Panthay Revolts were due to religious persecution by the Qing.
The Dungan and Panthay Revolts by the Hui occurred because of racial antagonism and class warfare, not purely religious strife as is sometimes mistakenly assumed.[96]
The Panthay rebellion was not religious in nature, since the Muslims were joined by non-Muslim Shan and Kakhyen and other hill tribes in the revolt.[97] A British officer testified that the Muslims did not rebel for religious reasons, and that the Chinese were tolerant of different religions and were unlikely to have caused the revolt by interfering with the practicing of Islam.[98] In addition, loyalist Muslim forces helped the Qing crush the rebel Muslims.[99]
Du Wenxiu was not aiming his rebellion at Han, but was anti-Qing and wanted to destroy the Manchu government. During the revolt Hui from provinces which were not in rebellion, like Sichuan and Zhejiang, served as negotiators between rebel Hui and the Qing government. One of Du Wenxiu's banners said "Deprive the Manchu Qing of their Mandate to Rule" (革命滿清), and he called on Han to assist Hui to overthrow the Manchu regime and drive them out of China.[100][101] Du's forces led multiple non-Muslim forces, including Han Chinese, Li, Bai, and Hani.[102] Du Wenxiu also called for unity between Muslim Hui and Han. He was quoted as saying "our army has three tasks: to drive out the Manchus, unite with the Chinese, and drive out traitors."[103]
Muslims in other parts of China proper such as the east and southern provinces who did not revolt were not affected at all by the rebellion, and experienced no genocide, nor did they seek to revolt. It was reported that Muslim villages in Henan province, which was next to Shaanxi, were totally unaffected by the Dungan revolt and relations between Han and Hui continued normally. Muslims from eastern China like Ma Xinyi continued to serve in the Chinese government during the revolt, and ignored the Muslims of northwest China.
The Hui Muslims in Xi'an city in Shaanxi province were completely spared from reprisals by General Zuo Zongtang and allowed to stay in Xi'an after the war since they never joined the Hui rebels in the rural areas of Shaanxi, despite the fact that Shaanxi was the epicenter of the Dungan rebellion. The Muslim quarter still exists in Xi'an to this day with the Hui people living inside it.
The Muslims of Xining were also spared by Zuo after his forces captured the city from the rebels. Zuo differentiated between rebels and "good Muslims", seeking arrangements to resettle Muslim refugees in new areas to avoid future conflict. Zuo Zongtang resettled Hui refugees from Shaanxi in southern Gansu province after defeating the rebels in Xining and Suzhou. Zuo offered amnesty to Gedimu Sunni and Khufiyya Sufi rebels who surrendered.
Elisabeth Allès wrote that the relationship between Hui Muslim and Han peoples continued normally in the Henan area, with no ramifications or consequences from th Muslim rebellions of other areas. Allès wrote in the document "Notes on some joking relationships between Hui and Han villages in Henan" published by French Centre for Research on Contemporary China that "The major Muslim revolts in the middle of the nineteenth century which involved the Hui in Shaanxi, Gansu and Yunnan, as well as the Uyghurs in Xinjiang, do not seem to have had any direct effect on this region of the central plain."[104] The Hui Muslim population of Beijing was unaffected by the Muslim rebels during the Dungan revolt.[105]
Gedimu Hanafi Sunni Muslims tried to distance themselves from the Jahriyya Sufi rebels. Some of them even helped the Qing dynasty crush the Sufi rebels.[106]
The rebels were disorganized and without a common purpose. Some Han Chinese rebelled against the Qing state during the rebellion, and rebel bands fought each other. The main Hui rebel leader, Ma Hualong, was even granted a military rank and title during the rebellion by the Qing dynasty. It was only later when Zuo Zongtang launched his campaign to pacify the region, did he decide which rebels who surrendered were going to be executed, or spared.[107]
Zuo Zongtang generally massacred New Teaching Jahriyya rebels, even if they surrendered, but spared Old Teaching Khafiya and Sunni Gedimu rebels. Ma Hualong belonged to the New Teaching school of thought, and Zuo executed him, while Hui generals belonging to the Old Teaching clique such as Ma Qianling, Ma Zhan'ao and Ma Anliang were granted amnesty and even promoted in the Qing military. Moreover, an army of Han Chinese rebels led by Dong Fuxiang surrendered and joined Zuo Zongtang.[107] General Zuo accepted the surrender of Hui people belonging to the Old Teaching school, provided they surrendered large amounts of military equipment and supplies, and accepted relocation. He refused to accept the surrender of New Teaching Muslims who still believed in its tenets, since the Qing classified them as a dangerous heterodox cult, similar to the White Lotus Buddhists. Zuo said, "The only distinction is between the innocent and rebellious, there is none between Han and Hui".[108]
The Qing authorities decreed that the Hui rebels who had taken part in violent attacks were merely heretics and not representative of the entire Hui population, just as the heretical White Lotus did not represent all Buddhists.[109] Qing authorities decreed that there were two different Muslim sects, the "old" religion and "new" religion. The new were heretics and deviated from Islam in the same way that the White Lotus deviated from Buddhism and Daoism, and stated its intention to inform the Hui community that it was aware that the original Islamic religion was one united sect before the advent of new "heretics", saying they would separate Muslim rebels by which sect they belonged to.[110]
Zuo also stated that he would accept the surrender of New Teaching Muslims who admitted that they were deceived, radicalized, and misled by its doctrines. Zuo excluded khalifas and mullas from the surrender.[111]
As noted in the previously, Zuo relocated Han Chinese from Hezhou as a reward for the Hui leader Ma Zhan'ao after he and his followers surrendered and joined the Qing to crush the rebels. Zuo also moved Shaanxi Muslim refugees from Hezhou, only allowing native Gansu Muslims to stay behind. Ma Zhanao and his Hui forces were then recruited into the Green Standard Army of the Qing military.[112]
The Qing dynasty did not persecute Muslims systematically, it only massacred rebels regardless of their religion, when the Muslim General Ma Rulong defected to the Qing Dynasty, he became the most powerful military official in Yunnan province.[107]
The Qing armies only massacred the Muslims who had rebelled, and spared Muslims who took no part in the uprising.[113]
Hui Muslims and Uyghur Muslims massacred each other in the Battle of Kashgar (1933), Kizil massacre, Battle of Kashgar (1934), Battle of Yarkand, Battle of Yangi Hissar, Charkhlik Revolt, during the Kumul Rebellion. More massacres occurred during the Ili Rebellion.
Tensions between Hui and Uyghurs arose because Hui troops and officials often dominated the Uyghurs and crush Uyghur revolts.[114] Xinjiang's Hui population increased by over 520 percent between 1940 and 1982, an average annual growth of 4.4 percent, while the Uyghur population only grew at 1.7 percent. This dramatic increase in Hui population led inevitably to significant tensions between the Hui and Uyghur populations. Some Uyghurs in Kashgar remember that the Hui army at the Battle of Kashgar (1934) massacred 2,000 to 8,000 Uyghurs, which causes tension as more Hui moved into Kashgar from other parts of China.[115] Some Hui criticize Uyghur separatism and generally do not want to get involved in conflict in other countries.[116] Hui and Uyghur live separately, attending different mosques.[117]
During the Cultural Revolution, mosques along with other religious buildings were often defaced, destroyed or closed and copies of the Quran were destroyed and cemeteries by the Red Guards.[118] During that time, the government also constantly accused Muslims and other religious groups of holding "superstitious beliefs" and promoting "anti-socialist trends".[119] The government began to relax its policies towards Muslims in 1978, and supported worship and rituals. Today, Islam is experiencing a modest revival and there are now[120] many mosques in China. There has been an upsurge in Islamic expression and many nationwide Islamic associations have been organized to co-ordinate inter-ethnic activities among Muslims.[121]
However, restrictions have been applied to Uyghur Islamic practices because the Chinese government has attempted since 2001 to link Islamic beliefs with terrorist activities. Numerous events have led the government to crack down on most displays of Islamic piety among Uyghurs, including the wearing of veils and long beards. The Ghulja Incident and July 2009 Ürümqi riots have both resulted from abusive treatment of Uyghur Muslims within Chinese society, and resulted in ever more extreme government crackdowns. While Hui Muslims are seen as relatively docile, Uyghurs are stereotyped as Islamists and punished more strictly for crimes. In 1989 China banned a book titled "Xing Fengsu" ("Sexual Customs") which insulted Islam and placed its authors under arrest after protests in Lanzhou and Beijing by Uyghurs and Hui Muslims.[122][123][124][125][126][127][128][129][130][131] Hui Muslims who vandalized property during the protests against the book went unpunished while Uyghur protestors were imprisoned.[132]
Sino-Japanese War
During the Second Sino-Japanese war the Japanese followed what has been referred to as a "killing policy" and destroyed many mosques. According to Wan Lei, "Statistics showed that the Japanese destroyed 220 mosques and killed countless Hui people by April 1941." After the Rape of Nanking mosques in Nanjing were found to be filled with dead bodies.They also followed a policy of economic oppression which involved the destruction of mosques and Hui communities and made many Hui jobless and homeless. Another policy was one of deliberate humiliation. This included soldiers smearing mosques with pork fat, forcing Hui to butcher pigs to feed the soldiers, and forcing girls to supposedly train as geishas and singers but in fact made them serve as sex slaves. Hui cemeteries were destroyed for military reasons.[133] Many Hui fought in the war against Japan.
Imperial Japan in World War II
Imperial Japanese forces slaughtered, raped, and tortured Rohingya Muslims in a massacre in 1942 and expelled tens of thousands of Rohingya into Bengal in British India. The Japanese committed countless acts of rape, murder and torture against thousands of Rohingyas.[134] During this period, some 22,000 Rohingyas are believed to have crossed the border into Bengal, then part of British India, to escape the violence.[135][136] Defeated, 40,000 Rohingyas eventually fled to Chittagong after repeated massacres by the Burmese and Japanese forces.[137]
Japanese forces also carried out massacres, torture and atrocities on Muslim Moro people in Mindanao and Sulu. A former Japanese Imperial Navy medic, Akira Makino, admitted to carrying out dissections on Moro civilians while they were still alive.[138][139][140][141]
Middle East
Lebanon
The Sabra and Shatila massacre was the slaughter of between 762 and 3,500 civilians, mostly Palestinians and Lebanese Shiites, by a Lebanese Christian militia in the Sabra neighborhood and the adjacent Shatila refugee camp in Beirut, Lebanon from approximately 6:00 pm 16 September to 8:00 am 18 September 1982.[142]
Syria
In World War I, in Ottoman-ruled Syria the total number of civilian casualties was as many as 500,000. The civilian casualties of Greater Syria, including Akkar, were covered in a detailed article by Linda Schatkowski Schilcher.[143] Scholars acknowledge one particular reason for civilian deaths attributed to Germany (Ottoman ally in World War I), the callousness of German military officials in Syria, and systematic hoarding by the population at large.[143]
Myanmar
Myanmar has a Buddhist majority. The Muslim minority in Myanmar mostly consists of the Rohingya people and the descendants of Muslim immigrants from India (including what is now Bangladesh) and China (the ancestors of Chinese Muslims in Myanmar came from the Yunnan province), as well as descendants of earlier Arab and Persian settlers. Indian Muslims were brought to Burma by the British to aid them in clerical work and business. After independence, many Muslims retained their previous positions and achieved prominence in business and politics.
Buddhist persecution of Muslims arose from religious reasons, and occurred during the reign of King Bayinnaung, 1550–1589 AD. After conquering Bago in 1559, the Buddhist King prohibited the practice of halal, specifically, killing food animals in the name of Allah. He was religiously intolerant, forcing some of his subjects to listen to Buddhist sermons possibly converting by force. He also disallowed the Eid al-Adha, religious sacrifice of cattle, regarding killing animals in the name of religion as a cruel custom. Halal food was also forbidden by King Alaungpaya in the 18th century.
When General Ne Win swept to power on a wave of nationalism in 1962, the status of Muslims changed for the worse. Muslims were expelled from the army and were rapidly marginalized.[144] Many Rohingya Muslims fled Burma and many refugees inundated neighbouring Bangladesh including 200,000 in 1978 as a result of the King Dragon operation in Arakan[145] and 250,000 in 1991.[146]
Philippines
The Philippines is predominantly a Christian society with a complicated history of relations between Islam and Christianity. Despite historic evidence of Islamization spreading throughout the islands in the 13th-16th centuries, the archipelago came under Spanish rule in the 16th century. The Spanish proselytized many natives, and labelled those who remained Muslims as Moro, a derogatory term recalling the Moors, an Islamic people of North Africa who occupied Spain for 800 years. Today, this term Moro is used to refer to the indigenous Muslim tribes and ethnic groups of the country. When the Spanish came to the Philippine islands, most of the natives in Luzon and Visayas were pagans with Muslim minorities, and while Spanish proselytized many natives, many Muslims in Luzon and Visayas were not exempted by the Spaniards from the Spanish Inquisition, wherein Muslims to become Catholics or die for their faith. Those who remained Muslims are only the natives of Mindanao and Sulu which the Spaniards did not invade or had control of only briefly and partially.
The Spanish–Moro Wars between Spanish colonial authorities and the indigenous Sultanates of the Moro peoples, (the Sultanate of Sulu, Confederation of sultanates in Lanao and Sultanate of Maguindanao) further escalated tensions between the Christian and Muslim groups of the country. The Moros fought in the Moro Rebellion against the Americans during which Americans massacred Moro women and children at the Moro Crater massacre, against the Japanese in World War II, and are waging an insurgency against the Philippines. The pro-Philippine government Ilaga militia, composed of Catholic and other Christian settlers on Moro land in Mindanao, were known for their atrocities and massacres against Moro civilians and their bloodiest attack happened in June 1971 when they slaughtered 65 Moro civilians at a Mosque during the Manili massacre. On September 24, 1974, in the Malisbong massacre the Armed Forces of the Philippines slaughtered about 1,500 Moro Muslim civilians who were praying at a Mosque in addition to mass raping Moro girls who had been taken aboard a boat.[147]
Polls have shown that some non-Muslim Filipinos hold negative views directed against the Moro people.[148][149][149][150][151][152][153]
Russia
Russian Empire
The period from the conquest of Kazan in 1552 to the ascension of Catherine the Great in 1762, was marked by systematic repression of Muslims through policies of exclusion and discrimination as well as the destruction of Muslim culture by elimination of outward manifestations of Islam such as mosques. The Russians initially demonstrated a willingness in allowing Islam to flourish as Muslim clerics were invited into the various region to preach to the Muslims, particularly the Kazakhs whom the Russians viewed as "savages" and "ignorant" of morals and ethics.[154][155] However, Russian policy shifted toward weakening Islam by introducing pre-Islamic elements of collective consciousness.[156] Such attempts included methods of eulogizing pre-Islamic historical figures and imposing a sense of inferiority by sending Kazakhs to highly elite Russian military institutions.[156] In response, Kazakh religious leaders attempted to bring religious fervor by espousing pan-Turkism, though many were persecuted as a result.[157]
While total expulsion as in other Christian nations such as Spain, Portugal and Sicily was not feasible to achieve a homogenous Russian Orthodox population, other policies such as land grants and the promotion of migration by other Russian and non-Muslim populations into Muslim lands displaced many Muslims making them minorities in places such as some parts of the South Ural region to other parts such as the Ottoman Turkey, and almost annihilating the Circassians, Crimean Tatars, and various Muslims of the Caucasus. The Russian army rounded up people, driving Muslims from their villages to ports on the Black Sea, where they awaited ships provided by the neighboring Ottoman Empire. The explicit Russian goal was to expel the groups in question from their lands.[158] They were given a choice as to where to be resettled: in the Ottoman Empire or in Russia far from their old lands. Only a small percentage (the numbers are unknown) accepted resettlement within the Russian Empire. The trend of Russification has continued at different paces during the remaining Tsarist period and under the Soviet Union, so that today there are more Tatars living outside the Republic of Tatarstan than inside it.[159]
Alexander Suvorov announced the capture of Ismail in 1791 to the Tsarina Catherine in a doggerel couplet, after the assault had been pressed from house to house, room to room, and nearly every Muslim man, woman, and child in the city had been killed in three days of uncontrolled massacre, 40,000 Turks dead, a few hundred taken into captivity. For all his bluffness, Suvorov later told an English traveller that when the massacre was over he went back to his tent and wept.[57]
USSR
The Soviet Union was hostile to all forms of religion, which was "the opium of the masses" in accordance with Marxist ideology. Relative religious freedom existed for Muslims in the years following the revolution, but in the late 1920s the Soviet government took a strong anti-religious turn. Many mosques were closed or torn down.[160] During the period of Joseph Stalin's leadership, Crimean Tatar, Chechen, Ingush, Balkar, Karachay, and Meskhetian Turk Muslims were victims of mass deportation. However, the deportation was not religious persecution, it was officially based on alleged collaborationism[161] during the Nazi occupation of Crimea.[162] The deportation began on 17 May 1944 in all Crimean inhabited localities. More than 32,000 NKVD troops participated in this action. 193,865 Crimean Tatars were deported, 151,136 of them to Uzbek SSR, 8,597 to Mari ASSR, 4,286 to Kazakh SSR, the rest 29,846 to the various oblasts of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.
From May to November, 10,105 Crimean Tatars died of starvation in Uzbekistan (7% of deported to Uzbek SSR). Nearly 30,000 (20%) died in exile during the year and a half by the NKVD data and nearly 46% by the data of the Crimean Tatar activists. According to Soviet dissident information, many Crimean Tatars were made to work in the large-scale projects conducted by the Soviet Gulag system of slave labor camps.[163]
Tatarstan
The 1921-1922 famine deaths of 2 million Muslim Tatars in Tatar ASSR and in the Volga-Ural region was catastrophic and halved the Volga Tatar population within the USSR. This famine is also known as "terror-famine" and "famine-genocide" in Tatarstan.[164] The Soviets settled ethnic Russians after the famine in Tatar ASSR and in Volga-Ural region causing the Tatar share of the population to decline to less than 50%. All-Russian Tatar Social Center (VTOTs) has asked the United Nations to condemn the 1921 Tatarstan famine as Genocide of Muslim Tatars.[165] The 1921–1922 famine in Tatarstan has been compared to Holodomor in Ukraine.[166]
Vietnam
The Vietnamese Emperor Minh Mạng unleashed persecution of Cham Muslims after he conquered the final remnants of Champa in 1832.[167][168] The Vietnamese coercively fed lizard and pig meat to Cham Muslims and cow meat to Cham Hindus against their will to punish them and assimilate them to Vietnamese culture.[169]
Current situation (1989 to present)
Persecution of Muslims in the West
Germany
On July 1, 2009, Marwa El-Sherbini was stabbed to death in a courtroom in Dresden, Germany. She had just given evidence against her attacker who had used insults against her because she wore an Islamic headscarf. El-Sherbini was called "Islamist", "terrorist" and (according to one report) "slut".[note 1]
The Bosphorus serial murders took place between 2000 and 2006. The police discovered a hit list of 88 people that included "two prominent members of the Bundestag and representatives of Turkish and Islamic groups".[170]
German officials recorded more than 70 attacks against mosques from 2012 to 2014.[171]
France
In the week after the Charlie Hebdo shooting, 54 anti-Muslim incidents were reported in France. These included 21 reports of shootings and grenade throwing at Islamic buildings (e.g. mosques) and 33 cases of threats and insults.[172][173][174][175][176][177][178] Three grenades were thrown at a mosque in Le Mans, west of Paris, and a bullet hole was found in its windows. A Muslim prayer hall in the Port-la-Nouvelle was also fired at. There was an explosion at a restaurant affiliated to a mosque in Villefranche-sur-Saône. No casualties were reported.[179][180]
Bosnian Genocide
The Bosnian Genocide refers to either genocide at Srebrenica and Žepa[181] committed by Bosnian Serb forces in 1995 or the ethnic cleansing campaign throughout areas controlled by the Army of the Republika Srpska[182] that took place during the 1992–1995 Bosnian War.[183]
The events in Srebrenica in 1995 included the killing of more than 8,000 Bosnian Muslim men and boys, as well as the mass expulsion of another 25,000–30,000 Bosniak civilians, in and around the town of Srebrenica in Bosnia and Herzegovina, committed by units of the Army of the Republika Srpska (VRS) under the command of General Ratko Mladić.[184][185]
The ethnic cleansing campaign that took place throughout areas controlled by the VRS targeted Bosnian Muslims. The ethnic cleansing campaign included unlawful confinement, murder, rape, sexual assault, torture, beating, robbery and inhumane treatment of civilians; the targeting of political leaders, intellectuals and professionals; the unlawful deportation and transfer of civilians; the unlawful shelling of civilians; the unlawful appropriation and plunder of real and personal property; the destruction of homes and businesses; and the destruction of places of worship.[186]
The Srebrenica massacre, also known as the Srebrenica genocide[187][188][189][190][191][192] (Bosnian: Genocid u Srebrenici), was the July 1995 killing of more than 8,000[193][194][195][196][197] Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims), mainly men and boys, in and around the town of Srebrenica during the Bosnian War. The killing was perpetrated by units of the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) under the command of General Ratko Mladić. The Secretary-General of the United Nations described the mass murder as the worst crime on European soil since the Second World War.[198][199] A paramilitary unit from Serbia known as the Scorpions, officially part of the Serbian Interior Ministry until 1991, participated in the massacre,[200][201] along with several hundred Russian and Greek volunteers.[202][203]
United States
In the aftermath of 9/11, hate crimes against people of Middle-Eastern descent in the country increased from 354 attacks in 2000 to 1,501 attacks in 2001.[204]
Zohreh Assemi, an Iranian American Muslim owner of a nail salon in Locust Valley, New York, was robbed, beaten, and called a "terrorist" in September 2007 in what authorities call a bias crime.[205] Assemi was kicked, sliced with a boxcutter, and had her hand smashed with a hammer. The perpetrators, who forcibly removed $2,000 from the salon and scrawled anti-Muslim slurs on the mirrors, also told Assemi to "get out of town" and that her kind were not "welcomed" in the area. The attack followed two weeks of phone calls in which she was called a "terrorist" and told to "get out of town," friends and family said.[205]
On August 25, 2010, a New York taxi driver was stabbed after a passenger asked if he was Muslim.[206]
December 27, 2012 in New York City 31-year-old Erika Menendez allegedly pushed an Indian immigrant and small businessman named Sunando Sen onto the subway tracks where he was struck and killed by a train. Menendez, who has a long history of mental illness[207][208] and violence,[209] told police: "I pushed a Muslim off the train tracks because I hate Hindus and Muslims… Ever since 2001 when they put down the Twin Towers, I've been beating them up." She has been charged with 2nd degree murder as a hate crime.[210]
The ACLU keeps track of Nationwide Anti-Mosque Activity where they have noted at least 50 anti-mosque incidents in the previous 5 years.[211]
Persecution of Muslims in Asia
Azerbaijan
In Nardaran, a deadly incident broke out between Azerbaijan security forces and religious Shia residents in which two policemen and four suspected Shia Muslim militants were killed.[212][213][214][215][216][217][218][219][220][221]
As a result of this incident, the Azerbaijani parliament passed laws prohibiting people with religious education received abroad to implement Islamic rites and ceremonies in Azerbaijan, as well as to preach in mosques and occupy leading positions in the country; as well as prohibiting the display of religious paraphernalia, flags and slogans, except in places of worship, religious centers and offices.[222] Ashura festivities in public have also been banned.[223] The Azerbaijani government also passed a law to remove the citizenship of Azerbaijani citizens who fight abroad.[224]
The Azerbaijan authorities cracked down on observant Sunni Muslims.[225]
Tajikistan
Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school has been officially recognized by the government since 2009.[226] Tajikistan considers itself a secular state with a Constitution providing for freedom of religion. The Government has declared two Islamic holidays, Id Al-Fitr and Idi Qurbon, as State holidays. According to a U.S. State Department release and Pew research group, the population of Tajikistan is 98% Muslim. Approximately 87%-95% of them are Sunni and roughly 3% are Shia and roughly 7% are non-denominational Muslims.[227][228] The remaining 2% of the population are followers of Russian Orthodoxy, a variety of Protestant denominations, Catholicism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism.
A great majority of Muslims fast during Ramadan, although only about one third in the countryside and 10% in the cities observe daily prayer and dietary restrictions.
There is some reported concern among mainstream Muslim leaders that minority religious groups undermine national unity.[229] There is a concern for religious institutions becoming active in the political sphere. The Islamic Renaissance Party (IRP), a major combatant in the 1992–1997 Civil War and then-proponent of the creation of an Islamic state in Tajikistan, constitutes no more than 30% of the government by statute. Membership in Hizb ut-Tahrir, a party which today aims for a nonviolent overthrow of secular governments and the unification of Tajiks under one Islamic state, is illegal and members are subject to arrest and imprisonment.[230] Numbers of large mosques appropriate for Friday prayers are limited and some feel this is discriminatory.
By law, religious communities must register by the State Committee on Religious Affairs (SCRA) and with local authorities. Registration with the SCRA requires a charter, a list of 10 or more members, and evidence of local government approval prayer site location. Religious groups who do not have a physical structure are not allowed to gather publicly for prayer. Failure to register can result in large fines and closure of place of worship. There are reports that registration on the local level is sometimes difficult to obtain.[231] People under the age of 18 are also barred from public religious practice.[232]
The reason for having Tajikistan in this article is primarily because the government of the country itself, is - or is seen to be - the source of claimed persecution of Muslims. (As opposed to coming from outside forces or other religious groups.) This can make the reported issues open to bias by media and personal religious beliefs or preferences. In actual fact, the government - with the apparent approval of the people - is attempting to keep the government completely secular (full separation of Church and State) to avoid what they perceive as problems in other surrounding countries.[233]
- The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects this right [233]
- There are some restrictions, and the Government monitors the activities of religious institutions to keep them from becoming overtly political.[233]
- Religious communities must be registered by the Committee on Religious Affairs, which monitors the activities of Muslim groups[233]
- The official reason given to justify registration is to ensure that religious groups act in accordance with the law but in practice it ensures they do not become overly political.[233]
- President Imomali Rahmonov strongly defended "secularism", likely understood both by the President and his audience, as being "antireligious" rather than "nonreligious."[233]
- The vast majority of citizens, including members of the Government, consider themselves Muslims and are not anti-Islamic but there is a pervasive fear of Islamic fundamentalism in both the government and much of the population at large.[233]
- A 1998 law prohibits the creation of political parties with a religious orientation.[233]
- A November 2015 rule reportedly bans Government Employees from attending Friday Prayers.[234][235]
- The Friday "Government Employee Prayer ban" appears to relate to leaving work during normal working hours to attend prayers. "Over the last two weeks, after Idi Qurbon, our management forbade us from leaving work to attend Friday prayers," one unnamed government employee told Asia-Plus. [235]
Mosques are not permitted to allow women inside due to a fatwa issued in August 2004, by the Tajik Council of Ulema, or scholars - the country's highest Muslim body.[236] Part of the reasoning for this is that Tajikistan has 3,980 mosques, but very few are designed to allow men and women to worship separately, a practice Islam generally requires. The fatwa was not strictly enforced and more recently, it has been reported that the Ulema Council will relax the ban.[237]
Only state controlled religious education is approved for children and long beards are banned in Tajikistan.[238]
In Tajikistan, Mosques are banned from allowing Friday Prayers for children younger than 18 year old.[239][240][241][242][243][244][245][246][247][248][249][250][251][252][253][254][255][256]
From the beginning of 2011 1,500 Mosques were shut down by the Tajik government, in addition to banning the hijab for children, banning the use of loudspeakers for the call of prayer, forbidding mosques from allowing women to enter, and monitoring Imams and students learning an Islamic education abroad, having sermons in the Mosque approved by the government and limiting the Mosque sermons to 15 minutes.[257] Muslims experienced the most negative effects from the "Religion Law" enacted by the government of Tajikistan, curtailing sermons by Imams during weddings, making the "Cathedral mosques" the only legal place for sermons to be given by Imams with sermons not being allowed in five-fold mosques, the five-fold mosques are small mosques and serve a limited number of people while the medium and big mosques are categorized as Cathedral mosques, girls who wore the hijab have been expelled from schools and hijabs and beards are not permitted on passport photos.[258] Mosques have been demolished and shut down by the Tajikistan government on the justification that they were not registered and therefore not considered as mosques by the government.[259][260] Tajikistan has targeted religious groups like Jehovah's Witnesses, Jews, Christians, and Muslims who try to evade control by the government, synagogue, churches, and Mosques have been shut down and destroyed, only a certain amount of mosques are allowed to operate and the state must approve all "religious activity", in which younger than 18 year old children are not allowed to join in.[261] Buildings for religious worhsip for Jehovah's Witnesses, Protestant Churches, the Jewish Synagogue, and Muslim mosques have been targeted, destroyed, and shut down and prayers are forbidden to take place in public halls, with severed restrictions placed on religion.[262] Churches, a synagogue, and mosques have been destroyed by the Tajikistan government.[263] Government approval is required for Tajiks seeking to engage in religious studies in foreign countries and religious activities of Muslims in particular are subjected to controls by the Tajikistan government.[264] State control has been implemented on Islamic madrasahs, Imams, and Mosques by Tajikistan.[265] A list of sermon "topics" for Imams has been created by the Tajikistan government.[266] Towns are only allowed to have a certain number of mosques and only religious buildings sanctioned by the government are allowed to host religious activities, schools have banned hijab, religious studies in private have been forbidden mosque religious services are not allowed to admit children and non registered mosques have been closed.[267][268][269] Religious matters are banned for children under 18 year old. Public buildings do not allow beards, schools ban hijabs, unregistered mosques are shut down, and sermons are subjected to government authority.[270] Only if "provided the child expresses a desire to learn" can a family teach religion to their own children, while the Tajik government banned all non-family private education.[271] Islam and Muslims have been subjected to controls by the Tajikistan government, the states decides what sermons the Imams give, the government discharges the salaries of Imams and there is only a single madrasah in Tajikistan.[272]
Jehovah's Witnesses have been declared illegal in Tajikistan.[273] Abundant Life Christian Centre, Ehyo Protestant Church, and Jehovah's witnesses have accused Tajikistan of lying about them not being declared illegal at a Warsaw OSCE conference for human rights.[274]
Among increasingly religious Tajiks, Islamic-Arabic names have become more popular over Tajik names.[275] However the government has considered the outlawing of Arabic-Islamic names for children.[276][277][278][279][280][281][282] Tajikistan President Rakhmon (Rahmon) has said that the Persian epic Shahnameh should be used as a source for names, with his proposed law hinting that Muslim names would be forbidden after his anti hijab and anti beard laws.[283]
The Tajik government has used the word "prostitute" to label hijab wearing women and enforced shaving of beards.[283] As well as that the black colored Islamic veil was attacked and criticized in public by Tajik President Emomali Rahmon.[284]
The Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan has been banned by the Tajik government.[285][286][287]
Tajikistan's restrictions on Islam has resulted in a drastic decrease of big beards and hijabs.[288] Tajikistan bans Salafism under the name "Wahhabi", which is applied to forms of Islam not permitted by the government.[289]
160 Islamic clothing stores were shut down and 13,000 men were forcibly shaved by the Tajik police and Arabic names were banned by the parliament of Tajikistan as part of a secularist campaign by President Emomali Rajmon.[290][291][292][293]
Arabic names were outlawed by the legislature of Tajikistan.[294]
In Uzbekistan and Tajikistan women wore veils which covered their entire face and body like the Paranja and faranji. The traditional veil in Central Asia worn before modern times was the faranji but it was banned by the Soviet Communists[295] but the Tajikistan President Emomali has misleadingly tried to claim that veils were not part of Tajik culture.[284]
After an Islamic Renaissance Party member was allowed to visit Iran by the Iranian government a diplomatic protest was made by Tajikistan.[296]
China
The city of Karamay has banned Islamic beards, headwear and clothing on buses.[297] China's far-western Xinjiang province have passed a law to prohibit residents from wearing burqas in public.[298] China has also banned Ramadan fasting for Communist party members in certain parts of Xinjiang.[299] Amnesty International has said Uyghurs face widespread discrimination in employment, housing and educational opportunities, as well as curtailed religious freedom and political marginalization.
Uncertainty of Motive
According to human rights organizations and western media Uyghurs face discrimination and religious persecution at the hands of the government authorities. In a 2013 news article, The New York Times reported, "Many Uighurs are also convinced that Beijing is seeking to wipe out their language and culture through assimilation and education policies that favor Mandarin over Uighur in schools and government jobs. ... Civil servants can be fired for joining Friday afternoon prayer services, and Uighur college students say they are often required to eat lunch in school cafeterias during the holy month of Ramadan, when observant Muslims fast."[300]
However, the suppression of the Uyghurs has more to do with the fact that they are separatist, rather than Muslim. China banned a book titled "Xing Fengsu" ("Sexual Customs") which insulted Islam and placed its authors under arrest in 1989 after protests in Lanzhou and Beijing by Chinese Hui Muslims, during which the Chinese police provided protection to the Hui Muslim protestors, and the Chinese government organized public burnings of the book.[122][123][124][125][126][127][128][129][130][131] The Chinese government assisted them and gave into their demands because Hui do not have a separatist movement, unlike the Uyghurs,[301] Hui Muslim protestors who violently rioted by vandalizing property during the protests against the book were let off by the Chinese government and went unpunished while Uyghur protestors were imprisoned.[132]
Different Muslim ethnic groups in different regions are treated differently by the Chinese government in regards to religious freedom. Religious freedom is present for Hui Muslims, who can practice their religion, build Mosques, and have their children attend Mosques, while more controls are placed specifically on Uyghurs in Xinjiang.[302]
Although religious education for children is officially forbidden by law in China, the Communist party allows Hui Muslims to violate this law and have their children educated in religion and attend Mosques while the law is enforced on Uyghurs. After secondary education is completed, China then allows Hui students who are willing to embark on religious studies under an Imam.[303] China does not enforce the law against children attending Mosques on non-Uyghurs in areas outside of Xinjiang.[304][305] Since the 1980s Islamic private schools (Sino-Arabic schools (中阿學校)) have been supported and permitted by the Chinese government among Muslim areas, only specifically excluding Xinjiang from allowing these schools because of separatist sentiment there.[306]
Hui Muslims who are employed by the state are allowed to fast during Ramadan unlike Uyghurs in the same positions, the amount of Hui going on Hajj is expanding, and Hui women are allowed to wear veils, while Uyghur women are discouraged from wearing them and Uyghurs find it difficult to get passports to go on Hajj.[307]
Hui religious schools are allowed a massive autonomous network of mosques and schools run by a Hui Sufi leader was formed with the approval of the Chinese government even as he admitted to attending an event where Bin Laden spoke.[308][309]
"The Diplomat" reported on the fact that while Uyghur's religious activitis are curtailed, Hui Muslims are granted widespread religious freedom and that therefore the policy of the Chinese government towards Uyghurs in Xinjiang is not directed against Islam, but rather aggressively stamping out the Uyghur separatist threat.[310]
Uyghur views vary by the oasis they live in. China has historically favored Turpan and Hami. Uyghurs in Turfan and Hami and their leaders like Emin Khoja allied with the Qing against Uyghurs in Altishahr. During the Qing dynasty, China enfeoffed the rulers of Turpan and Hami (Kumul) as autonomous princes, while the rest of the Uyghurs in Altishahr (the Tarim Basin) were ruled by Begs.[311] Uyghurs from Turpan and Hami were appointed by China as officials to rule over Uyghurs in the Tarim Basin. Turpan is more economically prosperous and views China more positively than the rebellious Kashgar, which is the most anti-China oasis. Uyghurs in Turpan are treated leniently and favourably by China with regards to religious policies, while Kashgar is subjected to controls by the government.[312][313] In Turpan and Hami, religion is viewed more positively by China than religion in Kashgar and Khotan in southern Xinjiang.[314] Both Uyghur and Han Communist officials in Turpan turn a blind eye to the law and allow religious Islamic education for Uyghur children.[315][316] Celebrating at religious functions and going on Hajj to Mecca is encouraged by the Chinese government, for Uyghur members of the Communist party. From 1979-1989, 350 mosques were built in Turpan.[317] Han, Hui, and the Chinese government are viewed much more positively by Uyghurs specifically in Turpan, with the government providing better economic, religious, and political treatment for them.[318]
"Protect religion, Kill the Han and destroy the Hui".(baohu zongjiao, sha Han mie Hui 保護宗教,殺漢滅回), is a Uyghur proverb.[319][320]
Vietnam
The Cham Muslims in Vietnam are only recognized as a minority, and not as an indigenous people by the Vietnamese government despite being indigenous to the region. Muslim Chams have experienced violent religious and ethnic persecution and restrictions on practicing their faith under the current Vietnamese government, with the Vietnamese state confisticating Cham property and forbidding Cham from observing their religious beliefs. In 2010 and 2013 several incidents occurred in Thành Tín and Phươc Nhơn villages where Cham were murdered by Vietnamese. In 2012, Vietnamese police in Chau Giang village stormed into a Cham Mosque, stole the electric generator, and also raped Cham girls.[321] Cham Muslims in the Mekong Delta have also been economically marginalized and pushed into poverty by Vietnamese policies, with ethnic Vietnamese Kinh settling on majority Cham land with state support, and religious practices of minorities have been targeted for elimination by the Vietnamese government.[322]
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka has a Buddhist majority and significant Hindu Tamil minority. The rebels Tamil LTTE attacked Muslims during the Sri Lankan Civil War.
The militant Buddhist Bodu Bala Sena campaigned against Halal meat and attacked Mosques and Muslims.[323][324] The BBC reported that "Sri Lanka’s Muslim minority is being targeted by hardline Buddhists. ... There have also been assaults on churches and Christian pastors but it is the Muslims who are the most concerned."[325]
Myanmar
A widely publicised Burmese conflict was the 2012 Rakhine State riots, a series of conflicts that primarily involved the ethnic Rakhine Buddhist people and the Rohingya Muslim people in the northern Rakhine State—an estimated 90,000 people were displaced as a result of the riots.[326][327]
India
The 2002 Gujarat violence was a series of incidents starting with the Godhra train burning and the subsequent communal violence between Hindus and Muslims in the Indian state of Gujarat. On 27 February 2002, an allegedly Muslim mob burnt the Sabarmati Express train and 58 Hindus including 25 women and 15 children were burnt to death. Frontline claimed that the blame of train burning was put on Muslims,[328] while larger sections of media reported that it was Muslim mob which burnt the train.[329][330][331][332] Attacks against Muslims and general communal riots arose on a large scale across the state, in which 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus were ultimately killed; 223 more people were reported missing.[333][334] 536 places of worship were damaged: 273 dargahs, 241 mosques and 19 temples.[335] Muslim-owned businesses suffered the bulk of the damage. 61,000 Muslims and 10,000 Hindus fled their homes. Preventive arrests of 17,947 Hindus and 3,616 Muslims were made. In total, 27,901 Hindus and 7,651 Muslims were arrested.[336][337][338]
Tibet
When Hui started migrating into Lhasa in the 1990s, racist rumors circulated among Tibetans in Lhasa about the Hui, such as that they were cannibals or ate children.[339]:2, 5, 10, 17–20 On February 2003, Tibetans rioted against Hui, destroying Hui-owned shops and restaurants.[340] Local Tibetan Buddhist religious leaders led a regional boycott movement that encouraged Tibetans to boycott Hui-owned shops, spreading the racist myth that Hui put the ashes of cremated imams in the cooking water they used to serve Tibetans food, in order to convert Tibetans to Islam.[339]
In Tibet, the majority of Muslims are Hui people. Hatred between Tibeans and Muslims stems from events during the Muslim warlord Ma Bufang's rule in Qinghai such as Ngolok rebellions (1917–49) and the Sino-Tibetan War, but in 1949 the Communists put an end to the violence between Tibetans and Muslims, however, new Tibetan-Muslim violence broke out after China engaged in liberalization. Riots broke out between Muslims and Tibetans over incidents such as bones in soups and prices of balloons, and Tibetans accused Muslims of being cannibals who cooked humans in their soup and of contaminating food with urine. Tibetans attacked Muslim restaurants. Fires set by Tibetans which burned the apartments and shops of Muslims resulted in Muslim families being killed and wounded in the 2008 mid-March riots. Due to Tibetan violence against Muslims, the traditional Islamic white caps have not been worn by many Muslims. Scarfs were removed and replaced with hairnets by Muslim women in order to hide. Muslims prayed in secret at home when in August 2008 the Tibetans burned the Mosque. Incidents such as these which make Tibetans look bad on the international stage are covered up by the Tibetan exile community. The repression of Tibetan separatism by the Chinese government is supported by Hui Muslims.[341] In addition, Chinese-speaking Hui have problems with Tibetan Hui (the Tibetan speaking Kache minority of Muslims).[342]
On October 8, 2012, a mob of about 200 Tibetan monks beat a dozen Dungans (Hui Muslims) in Luqu County, Gansu province, in retaliation for the Chinese Muslim community's application to build a mosque in the county.[343]
The main Mosque in Lhasa was burned down by Tibetans and Chinese Hui Muslims were violently assaulted by Tibetan rioters in the 2008 Tibetan unrest.[344] Tibetan exiles and foreign scholars like ignore and do not talk about sectarian violence between Tibetan Buddhists and Muslims.[339] The majority of Tibetans viewed the wars against Iraq and Afghanistan after 9/11 positively and it had the effect of galvanizing anti-Muslim attitudes among Tibetans and resulted in an anti-Muslim boycott against Muslim owned businesses.[339]:17 Tibetan Buddhists propagate a false libel that Muslims cremate their Imams and use the ashes to convert Tibetans to Islam by making Tibetans inhale the ashes, even though the Tibetans seem to be aware that Muslims practice burial and not cremation since they frequently clash against proposed Muslim cemeteries in their area.[339]:19
Since the Chinese government supports and backs up the Hui Muslims, the Tibetans deliberately attack the Hui Muslims as a way to demonstrate anti-government sentiment and because they have a background of sectarian violence against each other since Ma Bufang's rule due to their separate religions and ethnicity and Tibetans resent Hui economic domination.[345]
Persecution of Muslims in Africa
Central African Republic
During the internal armed conflict in the Central African Republic in 2013, anti-balaka militiamen were targeting Bangui's Muslim neighborhoods[346] and Muslim ethnic groups such as the Fulas.[347]
Early 2014 marked a turning point; hardened by war and massacres, the anti-balaka committed multiple atrocities.[348] In 2014, Amnesty International reported several massacres committed by anti-balaka against Muslim civilians, forcing thousands of Muslims to flee the country.[349][350]
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Religious persecution. |
For persecution of Muslims by other Muslim groups, see: Shia–Sunni relations.
Notes
- ↑ The police report stated that Wiens called El-Sherbini Terroristin, Islamistin and Schlampe. (Der Spiegel, 31 August 2009, p. 65).
References
- ↑ Buhl, F.; Welch, A. T. (1993). "Muḥammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam. 7 (2nd ed.). Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 360–376. ISBN 90-04-09419-9.
- ↑ An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p. 185
- ↑ "From the Beginning of Revelation". Archived from the original on 9 November 2005. Retrieved 19 September 2005.
- ↑ Janneh, Sabarr. Learning from the Life of Prophet Muhammad (SAW): Peace and Blessing of God Be upon Him. Milton Keynes: AuthorHouse, 2010. Print. ISBN 1467899666 Pgs. 235-238
- ↑ Sodiq, Yushau. Insider's Guide to Islam. Bloomington, Indiana: Trafford, 2011. Print. ISBN 1466924160 Pg. 23
- ↑ "King John of England: Royal Licenses to Export and Import, 1205-1206". Fordham.edu. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
- ↑ "King John of England: Royal Licenses to Export and Import, 1205-1206". Fordham.edu. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
- ↑ Rausch, David (1990), Legacy of Hatred: Why Christians Must Not Forget the Holocaust, Baker Pub Group, ISBN 0-8010-7758-3, p. 27
- ↑ Dalli, Charles. From Islam to Christianity: the Case of Sicily (PDF). p. 160.
- ↑ Daniel, Norman. The Arabs and Mediaeval Europe. London: Longman, 1979. p.154.
- 1 2 A.Lowe: The Barrier and the bridge;p.92.
- ↑ Aubé, Pierre (2001). Roger Ii De Sicile - Un Normand En Méditerranée. Payot.
- ↑ Taylor, p.99
- ↑ Julie Taylor. Muslims in Medieval Italy: The Colony at Lucera. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books. 2003.
- ↑ Ataullah Bogdan Kopanski. Islamization of Shqeptaret: The clas of Religions in Medieval Albania.
- ↑ Taylor, p.187
- ↑ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 24. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ Donald Daniel Leslie (1998). "The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims" (PDF). The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology. p. 12. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
- ↑ Johan Elverskog (2010). Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road (illustrated ed.). University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 228. ISBN 0-8122-4237-8. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ Dru C. Gladney (1991). Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University. p. 234. ISBN 0-674-59495-9. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ Brown, Daniel W. (2003), New Introduction to Islam, Blackwell Publishing, pp. 185-187, ISBN 0-631-21604-9
- ↑ Arnold, Thomas Walker, The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith, p. 186
- ↑ Frazier, Ian (25 April 2005). "Annals of history: Invaders: Destroying Baghdad". The New Yorker. p. 4.
- ↑ Maalouf, 243
- ↑ Runciman, 306
- ↑ Richard Foltz, Religions of the Silk Road, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010, p. 123
- ↑ Encyclopedia Americana, Grolier Incorporated, p. 680
- ↑ Collins, Roger (1995). The Arab Conquest of Spain 710-797. Oxford, UK / Cambridge, USA: Blackwell. pp. 39–40. ISBN 0631194053.
- ↑ "The Almohads - My Jewish Learning". Myjewishlearning.com. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
- ↑ Rodrigo de Zayas: Les Morisques';p.230
- ↑ T.B. Irving: Dates, Names and Places; p.85
- ↑ S. Lane Poole: The Moors; p.135-6
- ↑ Marmol Carvajal: Rebellion; pp.161-2
- ↑ H. C. Lea: The Moriscos of Spain; p.131
- ↑ H. C. Lea: A History of the Inquisition; vol 3; p.336
- ↑ L. P. Harvey. Muslims in Spain, 1500 to 1614. University Of Chicago Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-226-31963-6.
- ↑ H. C. Lea: The Moriscos of Spain; p.345
- ↑ Shirin Akiner (2009). Religious Language of a Belarusian Tatar Kitab: A Cultural Monument of Islam in Europe : with a Latin-script Transliteration of the British Library Tatar Belarusian Kitab (OR 13020) on CD-ROM. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 53–54. ISBN 978-3-447-03027-4.
- 1 2 3 Rajmohan Gandhi, Revenge and Reconciliation, pp. 117–118
- 1 2 3 Rajmohan Gandhi, Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten
- ↑ Lawrence, Sir Walter Roper (1895). The Valley of Kashmir. ISBN 9788120616301.
- ↑ "Languages of Belonging".
- ↑ Deol, Harnik (2000). Religion and Nationalism in India. ISBN 9780415201087.
- ↑ Explore Kashmiri Pandits. ISBN 9780963479860.
- ↑ Joshi-Ford, Sunita (2008-07-11). Jihad. ISBN 9781606931615.
- ↑ Metcalf, Barbara D; Metcalf, Thomas R (2002). A Concise History of India. ISBN 9780521639743.
- ↑ "Full text of "Gulab Singh 1792 1858"". Archive.org. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
- ↑ Bakshi, G. D (2002). Footprints in the Snow. ISBN 9788170622925.
- ↑ T. Akcam: A Shameful Act: The Armenian genocide and the question of Turkish responsibility, pages 327-329;"Acts of revenge were first carried out by the advancing Russian forces in 1916, assisted by Armenian volunteers."
- ↑ G. Lewy:The Armenian massacres in Ottoman Turkey: a disputed genocide, pages 115-122
- ↑ U.S. Vice-Consul James Loder Park to Secretary of State, Smyrna, 11 April 1923. US archives US767.68116/34
- ↑ Özdalga, Elizabeth. The last dragoman: the Swedish orientalist Johannes Kolmodin as scholar, activist and diplomat (2006), Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, p.63
- ↑ Mann, Michael The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing Cambridge University Press 2005, pp.112-113
- ↑ Carmichael, Cathie (2002), Ethnic cleansing in the Balkans, Routledge, pp. 21-22
- ↑ Levene, Mark (2005), "Genocide in the Age of the Nation State" pp. 225-226
- ↑ Hall, Richard C. (2002), The Balkan Wars, 1912-1913: prelude to the First World War, Routledge, pp. 136-137
- 1 2 J. Goodwin, Lords of the Horizons, p. 244, 1998, Henry Holt and Company, ISBN 0-8050-6342-0
- ↑ McCarthy, Justin (1995), Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821-1922, Princeton: Darwin Press, pp. 335-340
- ↑ Mann, Michael (2005), The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing, Cambridge University Press, p. 113
- ↑ Report of the International Commission to Inquire into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars (Washington, DC: The Endowment, 1914)
- 1 2 Cornis-Pope, Marcel & Neubauer, John (2004), History of the literary cultures of East-Central Europe p. 21
- ↑ Todorova, Maria (2009), Imagining the Balkans, Oxford University Press, p. 175
- ↑ St Clair, William (2008). That Greece Might Still Be Free: The Philhellenes in the War of Independence. p. 45. ISBN 9781906924003.
- ↑ McCarthy, Justin (1995), Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922, Princeton:Darwin Press
- ↑ Millas, Hercules (1991), History Textbooks in Greece and Turkey, History Workshop, No. 31
- ↑ Phillips, W. Alison , The War of Greek Independence 1821 to 1833, p. 61.
- ↑ Zarinebaf, Fariba., Bennet, John., Davis, Jack L. (2005), A historical and economic geography of Ottoman Greece, The America School of Classical Studies, Athens, pp. 162-171
- ↑ Greek Atrocities in the Vilayet of Smyrna (May to July 1919), The Permanent Bureau of the Turkish Congress at Lausanne, 1919, p. 5
- ↑ Quataert, Donald. "The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922", Cambridge University Press 2005, pp.69
- ↑ Millman, Richard. "The Bulgarian Massacres Reconsidered." pp.218-231
- ↑ Hupchick, Dennis P. (2002), The Balkans: From Constantinople to Communism, p. 265
- ↑ McCarthy, J. (1995), Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821-1922. Princeton: Darwin Press, pp. 64, 85
- ↑ Karpat, Kemal H. (2004), Studies on Ottoman social and political history: selected articles and essays, p. 764
- ↑ Ipek, Nedim (1994), Turkish Migration from the Balkans to Anatolia, pp. 40-41
- ↑ McCarthy, Justin., "Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821-1922"The Darwin Press Inc., Princeton, Sixth Printing 2008, pp.66-67
- ↑ "Exhibit Shows Russian 'Atrocities' in Turkish War 1877-8". Novinite.com. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
- ↑ Carnegie Report, Macedonian Muslims during the Balkan Wars,1912
- ↑ Volgyi, Bistra-Beatrix., "Ethno-Nationalism during Democratic Transition in Bulgaria", York University, 2007, pp.19
- ↑ Death and Exile, the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims by Justin McCarthy ISBN 0-87850-094-4 pg.91 the numbers which consists of Turks, Tatars, Circassians, Pomak(Bulgarian) Muslims and Jews are from 1887 Bulgarian Census, Les réfugies de la Roumelie p.8, Ottoman Special Inspectors of the Emigration Service and Türkiye'de Göç ve Göçmen Meseleleri -Issue of Emigration and emigrants in Turkey (name of book in English)- by Ahmet Cevan Eren,Istanbul,1966,pg.79-89
- ↑ Suleiman, Yasir, "Language and identity in the Middle East and North Africa", Cornwall, Great Britain 1996, pp.102-103
- ↑ "The Cambodian Genocide and International Law". Archived from the original on 11 October 2008.
- ↑ Perrin, Andrew (10 October 2003). "Pan-Islamic solidarity vs. persecution - TIME". TIME.com.
- ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20081222062408/http://yugong.fudan.edu.cn/Article/Info_View.asp?ArticleID=72. Archived from the original on 22 December 2008. Retrieved 7 September 2009. Missing or empty
|title=
(help) - ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20090101222355/http://yugong.fudan.edu.cn/Article/Info_View.asp?ArticleID=73. Archived from the original on 1 January 2009. Retrieved 7 September 2009. Missing or empty
|title=
(help) - ↑ Levene, Mark. Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State. I.B.Tauris, 2005. ISBN 1-84511-057-9, page 288
- ↑ Giersch, Charles Patterson. Asian Borderlands: The Transformation of Qing China's Yunnan Frontier. Harvard University Press, 2006. ISBN 1-84511-057-9, page 219
- ↑ "The Unreached Peoples Prayer Profiles. China - Land of Diversity". Kcm.co.kr. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
- ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20080312110509/http://www.hsais.org/2essay0405_4.htm. Archived from the original on 12 March 2008. Retrieved 7 June 2008. Missing or empty
|title=
(help) - ↑ Damsan Harper, Steve Fallon, Katja Gaskell, Julie Grundvig, Carolyn Heller, Thomas Huhti, Bradley Maynew, Christopher Pitts. Lonely Planet China. 9. 2005. ISBN 1-74059-687-0
- 1 2 Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. 2. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.ISBN 0-521-49712-4
- ↑ Jonathan N. Lipman, "Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China (Studies on Ethnic Groups in China)", University of Washington Press (February 1998), ISBN 0-295-97644-6.
- ↑ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 68. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ Mary Clabaugh Wright (1957). Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism the T'Ung-Chih. Stanford University Press. p. 121. ISBN 0-8047-0475-9. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ M. Th. Houtsma; A. J. Wensinck (1993). E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam 1913-1936. Stanford BRILL. p. 850. ISBN 90-04-09796-1. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ John King Fairbank; Kwang-ching Liu; Denis Crispin Twitchett (1980). Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911 Volume 11, Part 2 of The Cambridge History of China Series. Cambridge University Press. p. 223. ISBN 0-521-22029-7.
- ↑ James Hastings; John Alexander Selbie; Louis Herbert Gray (1916). Encyclopædia of religion and ethics. 8. T. & T. Clark. p. 893. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
- ↑ Fytche 1878, p. 300
- ↑ Fytche 1878, p. 301
- ↑ Joseph Mitsuo Kitagawa (2002). The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture. Routledge. p. 283. ISBN 0-7007-1762-5. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 59. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ David G. Atwill (2005). The Chinese sultanate: Islam, ethnicity, and the Panthay Rebellion in southwest China, 1856-1873. Stanford University Press. p. 139. ISBN 0-8047-5159-5. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ International Arts and Sciences Press, M.E. Sharpe, Inc (1997). Chinese studies in philosophy, Volume 28. M. E. Sharpe. p. 67. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ Jean Chesneaux; Marianne Bastid; Marie-Claire Bergère (1976). China from the opium wars to the 1911 revolution. Pantheon Books. p. 114. ISBN 0-394-49213-7. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ Allès, Elizabeth. "Notes on some joking relationships between Hui and Han villages in Henan". French Centre for Research on Contemporary China. p. 6. Retrieved 2011-07-20.
- ↑ Hugh D. R. Baker (1990). Hong Kong images: people and animals. Hong Kong University Press. p. 55. ISBN 962-209-255-1.
- ↑ Masumi, Matsumoto. "The completion of the idea of dual loyalty towards China and Islam". Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- 1 2 3 Garnaut, Anthony. "From Yunnan to Xinjiang:Governor Yang Zengxin and his Dungan Generals" (PDF). Pacific and Asian History, Australian National University. p. 98. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 2010-07-14.
- ↑ John King Fairbank; Kwang-ching Liu; Denis Crispin Twitchett (1980). Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911. Cambridge University Press. p. 228. ISBN 0-521-22029-7. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen. Afd. Letterkunde (1904). Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afd. Letterkunde, Volume 4, Issues 1-2. North-Holland. p. 323. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ Jan Jakob Maria Groot (1904). Sectarianism and religious persecution in China: a page in the history of religions, Volume 2. J. Miller. p. 324. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ John King Fairbank; Kwang-ching Liu; Denis Crispin Twitchett (1980). Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911. Cambridge University Press. p. 233. ISBN 0-521-22029-7. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ John King Fairbank; Kwang-ching Liu; Denis Crispin Twitchett (1980). Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911. Cambridge University Press. p. 234. ISBN 0-521-22029-7. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 77. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ Starr 2004, p. 311.
- ↑ Starr 2004, p. 113.
- ↑ Van Wie Davis, Elizabath. "Uyghur Muslim Ethnic Separatism in Xinjiang, China". Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies. Archived from the original on 17 June 2009. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ Safran, William (1998). Nationalism and ethnoregional identities in China. Psychology Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-7146-4921-X. Retrieved 2011-01-11.
- ↑ Goldman 1986
- ↑ Israeli (2002), pg. 253
- ↑ Mosques (Masjid) in China
- ↑ BBC 2002, China today
- 1 2 Beijing Review, Volume 32 1989, p. 13.
- 1 2 Gladney 1991, p. 2.
- 1 2 Schein 2000, p. 154.
- 1 2 Gladney 2004, p. 66.
- 1 2 Bulag 2010, p. 104.
- 1 2 Gladney 2005, p. 257.
- 1 2 Gladney 2013, p. 144.
- 1 2 Sautman 2000, p. 79.
- 1 2 Gladney 1996, p. 341.
- 1 2 Lipman 1996, p. 299.
- 1 2 Gladney 2004, p. 232.
- ↑ LEI, Wan ((2010/2)). "The Chinese Islamic "Goodwill Mission to the Middle East" During the Anti-Japanese War". DÎVÂN DISIPLINLERARASI ÇALISMALAR DERGISI. cilt 15 (sayi 29): 139–141. Retrieved 2014-06-19. Check date values in:
|date=
(help) - ↑ Kurt Jonassohn (1999). Genocide and gross human rights violations: in comparative perspective. Transaction Publishers. p. 263. ISBN 0765804174. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
- ↑ Howard Adelman (2008). Protracted displacement in Asia: no place to call home. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 86. ISBN 0754672387. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
- ↑ Human Rights Watch (Organization) (2000). Burma/Bangladesh: Burmese refugees in Bangladesh: still no durable solution. Human Rights Watch. p. 6. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
- ↑ Asian profile, Volume 21. Asian Research Service. 1993. p. 312. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
- ↑ "Japanese war veteran speaks of atrocities in the Philippines". Taipeitimes.com. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
- ↑ "Dissect them alive: chilling Imperial that order could not be di". The Australian. 26 February 2007.
- ↑ "japconfession". Forties.net. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
- ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20140317024425/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ht5P8U54dLa7dH9mqjKyurq0zQMw?hl=en. Archived from the original on 17 March 2014. Retrieved 1 April 2014. Missing or empty
|title=
(help) - ↑ Malone, Linda A. (1985). "The Kahan Report, Ariel Sharon and the SabraShatilla Massacres in Lebanon: Responsibility Under International Law for Massacres of Civilian Populations". Utah Law Review: 373–433. Retrieved 1 January 2013.
- 1 2 Schilcher, Linda Schatkowski( 1992), "The famine of 1915-1918 in greater Syria", in Spagnolo, John ed., Problems of the Modern Middle East in Historical Perspective Reading, pp.234-254.
- ↑ Harry Priestley/Rangoon (January 2006). "The Outsiders". irrawaddy.org. The Irrawaddy. Archived from the original on 27 November 2006. Retrieved 6 May 2015.
- ↑ "Burma's Muslim Rohingyas – The New Boat People. Marwaan Macan-Markar. IPS.". Ipsnews.net. Retrieved 2012-11-20.
- ↑ Peter Ford. "Why deadly race riots could rattle Myanmar's fledgling reforms". Csmonitor.com. Retrieved 2012-11-20.
- ↑ "1,500 Moro massacre victims during Martial Law honored". MindaNews.
- ↑ "Philippine Daily Inquirer - Google News Archive Search".
- 1 2 "Amina Rasul: Radicalisation of Muslims in the Philippines" (PDF). Kas.de. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
- ↑ Ariel Macaspac Hernandez (1 June 2011). "The Center-Periphery Notion of Nation-Building – Franchised Violence and the Bangsamoro Question in the Philippines". ResearchGate.
- ↑ Ronald Yacat. "The Bias Against Muslims: a Creeping Perception". Issuu.
- ↑ "Islam and Politics : Renewal and Resistance in the Muslim World" (PDF). Stimson.org. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
- ↑ "(Page 30 of 37) - Demographic Indicators of Ethno-religious Minority Recognition authored by Penetrante, Ariel.".
- ↑ Khodarkovsky, Michael. Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500-1800, pg. 39.
- ↑ Ember, Carol R. and Melvin Ember. Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Men and Women in the World's Cultures, pg. 572
- 1 2 Hunter, Shireen. "Islam in Russia: The Politics of Identity and Security", pg. 14
- ↑ Farah, Caesar E. Islam: Beliefs and Observances, pg. 304
- ↑ Kazemzadeh 1974
- ↑ Hunter, Shireen Tahmasseb, Thomas, Jeffrey L. & Melikishvili, Alexander (2004), Islam in Russia, M.E. Sharpe, ISBN 0-7656-1282-8
- ↑ "Muslims in the Former U.S.S.R.".
- ↑ Романько О. В. Крым 1941-44 гг. Оккупация и коллаборационизм. Симферополь, 2005
- ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20100602204620/http://www.cidct.org.ua/uk/publications/deport/3.html. Archived from the original on 2 June 2010. Retrieved 15 November 2009. Missing or empty
|title=
(help) - ↑ "RUSSIA: The Muzhik & the Commissar". Time. 30 November 1953.
- ↑ Mizelle, Peter Christopher (2002). Battle with Famine.
- ↑ "Tatar Nationalists Ask UN to Condemn 1921 Famine as Genocide". MariUver.
- ↑ "Seven million died in the 'forgotten' holocaust - Eric Margolis".
- ↑ IOC-Champa. "The Uprisings of Katip Sumat and Ja Thak Wa (1833-1835)".
- ↑ IOC-Champa. "The uprising of Jathak Wa (1834-1835)".
- ↑ Choi Byung Wook (2004). Southern Vietnam Under the Reign of Minh Mạng (1820-1841): Central Policies and Local Response. SEAP Publications. pp. 141–. ISBN 978-0-87727-138-3.
- ↑ Pidd, Helen; Harding, Luke (16 November 2011). "German neo-Nazi terrorists had 'hitlist' of 88 political targets". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 17 November 2011.
- ↑ Eddy, Melissa (2 January 2015). "In Sweden, the Land of the Open Door, Anti-Muslim Sentiment Finds a Foothold". The New York Times.
- ↑ "Les actes anti-musulmans se multiplient depuis l'attaque de Charlie Hebdo". Le Figaro. 2015-01-12.
- ↑ "French magazine attack set to deepen Europe's 'culture war'". Reuters. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
- ↑ "Don’t let extremists curtail European democracy". Retrieved 14 January 2015.
- ↑ Patrick Donahue (8 January 2015). "Paris Killings Seen Fueling Europe’s Anti-Islam Movements". Bloomberg. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
- ↑ Oren Dorell, USA TODAY (8 January 2015). "Paris attack heightens European tensions with Muslims". Retrieved 14 January 2015.
- ↑ "Mosques Attacked In Wake Of Charlie Hebdo Shooting". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
- ↑ "Attacks Reported At French Mosques in Wake of Charlie Hebdo Massacre". NBC News. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
- ↑ "Mosques Attacked In Wake Of Charlie Hebdo Shooting". The Huffington Post.
- ↑ Jack Crone and Jenny Stanton (8 January 2015). "Revenge attacks and retaliation begin: Mosques come under fire with guns and 'grenades' in France... and kebab shop near another Muslim temple is blown up". Daily Mail.
- ↑ "Genocide Conviction for Serb General Tolimir". iwpr.net. December 13, 2012.
- ↑ A Witness to Genocide: The 1993 Pulitzer Prize-Winning Dispatches on the "Ethnic Cleansing" of Bosnia, Roy Gutman
- ↑ Thackrah, John Richard (2008). The Routledge companion to military conflict since 1945. Routledge Companions Series. Taylor & Francis. pp. 81, 82. ISBN 978-0-415-36354-9. "Bosnian genocide can mean either the genocide committed by the Serb forces in Srebrenica in 1995 or the ethnic cleansing during the 1992–95 Bosnian War"
- ↑ "ICTY - TPIY : Address by ICTY President Theodor Meron, at Potocari Memorial Cemetery".
- ↑ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Refworld - Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic (Trial Judgement)". Refworld.
- ↑ ICTY; "Karadzic indictment. Paragraph 19"http://www.icty.org/x/cases/mladic/ind/en/kar-ii950724e.pdf
- ↑ "European Parliament resolution of 15 January 2009 on Srebrenica". European Parliament. Retrieved 10 August 2009.
- ↑ "Office of the High Representative – "Decision Enacting the Law on the Center for the Srebrenica-Potocari Memorial and Cemetery for the Victims of the 1995 Genocide"". Office of the High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2009.
- ↑ "Youth Initiative for Human Rights in Serbia letter to the Serbian President to commemorate the Srebrenica genocide". Youth Initiative for Human Rights in Serbia. Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2009.
- ↑ "Mladic shadow hangs over Srebrenica trial". The Guardian. London. 21 August 2006. Retrieved 1 November 2008.
- ↑ Goetze, Katharina (31 October 2008). "ICTY – Tribunal Update". Institute for War & Peace Reporting. Retrieved 1 November 2008.
- ↑ Mike Corder (20 August 2006). "Srebrenica Genocide Trial to Restart". Washington Post. Retrieved 26 October 2010.
- ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20140418221608/http://www.potocarimc.ba/_ba/liste/nestali_a.php. Archived from the original on 18 April 2014. Retrieved 13 April 2014. Missing or empty
|title=
(help) - ↑ "ICTY: The Conflicts". The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. Retrieved 5 August 2013.
- ↑ Kirsten Nakjavani Bookmiller (2008). The United Nations. Infobase Publishing. Retrieved 4 August 2013., p. 81.
- ↑ Christopher Paul; Colin P. Clarke; Beth Grill (2010). Victory Has a Thousand Fathers: Sources of Success in Counterinsurgency. Rand Corporation. Retrieved 4 August 2013., p. 25.
- ↑ Simons, Marlise (2011-05-31). "Mladic Arrives in The Hague". The New York Times.
- ↑ "Institute for War and Peace Reporting". Institute for War and Peace Reporting.
- ↑ "'MAY WE ALL LEARN AND ACT ON THE LESSONS OF SREBRENICA', SAYS".
- ↑ Williams, Daniel. "Srebrenica Video Vindicates Long Pursuit by Serb Activist". The Washington Post. Retrieved 26 May 2011.
- ↑ "ICTY – Kordic and Cerkez Judgement – 3. After the Conflict" (PDF). Retrieved 11 July 2012.
- ↑ Norman M. Naimark (2011). Memories of Mass Repression: Narrating Life Stories in the Aftermath of Atrocity. Transaction Publishers. Retrieved 4 August 2013., p. 3.
- ↑ "Greece faces shame of role in Serb massacre". The Guardian. 2013-01-05.
- ↑ Oswald, Debra L. (September 2005). "Understanding Anti-Arab Reactions Post-9/11: The Role of Threats, Social Categories, and Personal Ideologies". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 35 (9): 1775–1799. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02195.x.
- 1 2 Fanelli, James (16 September 2007). "MUSLIM BIZ GAL BEATEN". New York Post.
- ↑ "Taxi driver stabbed after passenger asks if he's Muslim". CNN. August 26, 2010.
- ↑ Pervaiz Shallwani (December 30, 2012). "Subway Suspect's Past Allegedly Includes Mental Health Problems, Violence". Wall Street Journal.
- ↑ Marc Santora (December 29, 2012). "Troubled Past for Suspect in Fatal Subway Push". New York Times.
- ↑ Lia Eustachewich (December 31, 2012). "Former firefighter: I was attacked by subway-shove suspect in 2003". New York Post.
- ↑ Kevin Deutsch (December 29, 2012). "Judge: No bail for NYC subway-". Newday.
- ↑ "Nationwide Anti-Mosque Activity". American Civil Liberties Union.
- ↑ "Oxu.az - Рамиль Усубов: В связи с событиями в Нардаране арестованы 32 человека – ВИДЕО". Oxu.Az.
- ↑ "Дороги в Нардаран перекрыты бетонными плитами - [ВИДЕО]". РадиоАзадлыг.
- ↑ "Ситуация в Нардаране остается напряженной".
- ↑ "Nardaran's Unrest Reflects Unresolved Woes in Azerbaijan". EurasiaNet.org.
- ↑ "УМК поддерживает силовую операцию в Нардаране".
- ↑ "МВД сообщает, что в доме Э.Гасымова обнаружено оружие". РадиоАзадлыг.
- ↑ "Кавказский Узел - Тела убитых в Нардаране выданы родным". Кавказский Узел.
- ↑ "Oxu.az - Возобновлено движение общественного транспорта в Нардаране – ФОТО". Oxu.Az.
- ↑ http://www.jamestown.org/programs/edm/single/?tx_ttnews[tt_news]=44846&cHash=c3ba7363d698036659ab0e10c671aeaf
- ↑ "Oxu.az - Рамиль Усубов прибудет в Нардаран – ФОТО". Oxu.Az.
- ↑ "В Азербайджане запретят мулл, обучавшихся за границей (Azerbaijan has banned mullahs studying abroad)" (in Russian). Oxu.az. 2 December 2015.
- ↑ "В Азербайджане запрещают различные представления в дни Ашура (Azerbaijan will forbid various representations in the days of Ashura)" (in Russian). Oxu.az. 2 December 2015.
- ↑ "Террористов будут лишать азербайджанского гражданства (Terrorists will be deprived Azerbaijani citizenship)" (in Russian). Oxu.az. 2 December 2015.
- ↑ Forum 18 News Service. "Forum 18 Archive: AZERBAIJAN: Five years' imprisonment for "normal Muslims" who "simply conduct prayers"? - 12 February 2015".
- ↑ Avaz Yuldashev (5 March 2009). «Ханафия» объявлена официальным религиозным течением Таджикистана ["Hanafi" declared the official religious movement in Tajikistan] (in Russian). Archived from the original on 25 August 2010.
- ↑ Pew Forum on Religious & Public life, Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation retrieved 29 October 2013.
- ↑ "Background Note: Tajikistan". State.gov. Retrieved 2009-10-02.
- ↑ "International Religious Freedom Report". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 31 January 2016.
- ↑ "Hizb ut Tahrir". BBC News. BBC. 2003-08-27. Retrieved 2013-09-12.
- ↑ TAJIKISTAN: Religious freedom survey, November 2003 -Forum 18 News Service, 20 November 2003
- ↑ U. S. Department of State International Religious Freedom Report for 2013, Executive Summary retrieved 2 August 2014.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "International Religious Freedom Report". U.S. Government. Retrieved 31 January 2016.
- ↑ "Tajikistan: USCIRF Criticizes Crackdown on Religious Freedom" (Religious Freedom). USCIRF. U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom. November 2, 2015. Retrieved 31 January 2016.
- 1 2 "Tajikistan: Friday Prayers Ban for Government Workers". EurasiaNet.org.
- ↑ "Tajikistan: Top Islamic Body Bans Women From Attending Mosque Services". Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty. October 20, 2004.
- ↑ "Tajik mosques open their doors wider to women". February 1, 2014.
- ↑ Morello, Carol (November 3, 2015). "Kerry pushes quirky, autocratic leader of Turkmenistan on human rights". The Washington Post.
- ↑ "Tajik President Signs Law Banning Children From Mosques". Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty. August 3, 2011.
- ↑ "Tajik Children, Facing Mosque Ban, To Be Offered Islamic Courses". Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty. June 27, 2011.
- ↑ "Tajikistan bans youth from mosques and churches". AFP. DUSHANBE. 3 August 2011.
- ↑ "Tajikistan moves to ban youth from mosques, churches". AFP. July 21, 2011. Archived from the original on 2011-08-03.
- ↑ "Tajikistan bans youth from mosques". AFP. DUSHANBE. Archived from the original on Sep 30, 2015. Retrieved 2011-08-03.
- ↑ "Tajik youth banned from mosques". AFP. DUSHANBE. August 4, 2011. Retrieved 2011-08-03.
- ↑ "Tajik teenagers face mosque ban". AFP. DUSHANBE. Aug 3, 2011. Retrieved 2011-08-03.
- ↑ "Tajikistan bans youth from mosques". RNW Media. Retrieved 2011-08-03.
- ↑ "Tajikistan bans youth from mosques". QHA Агентство Крымские Новости Crimean News Agency. 5 August 2011.
- ↑ Agencies (July 22, 2011). "Tajikistan bans youth in mosques". The Siasat Daily.
- ↑ Our Staff Reporter (August 4, 2011). "Tajik youth banned from mosques". AFP. DUSHANBE. Archived from the original on 2011-08-03. Retrieved 2011-08-03.
- ↑ Mathur, Shivani (04.08.2011). Berning, Sarah, ed. "Youths barred from religious practice in Tajikistan". AFP, Reuters. Check date values in:
|date=
(help) - ↑ Orange, Richard (23 Jun 2011). "Tajik ban on children in mosques could be 'disastrous'". The Telegraph. Almaty.
- ↑ "Tajikistan bans Muslim youths from praying in mosques". Reuters. DUSHANBE. August 4, 2011.
- ↑ S., Safa (July 19, 2011). "Tajikistan Mosques: No Kids Allowed". care2.
- ↑ Sodiqov, Alexander (June 28, 2011). "Bill Banning Children from Mosques Adopted in Tajikistan". Eurasia Daily Monitor. The Jamestown Foundation. 8 (124). Retrieved 9 November 2015.
- ↑ Sodiqov, Alexander (3 August 2011). "Bill Banning Children from Mosques Adopted in Tajikistan" (PDF). BI-WEEKLY BRIEFING. Central Asia and Caucasus Analyst. 13 (14): 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on Aug 3, 2011. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
- ↑ Bissenova, Alima (08/03/2011). "3 August 2011 News Digest". CACI Analyst. Check date values in:
|date=
(help) - ↑ Goble, Paul (June 2, 2011). "Tajik Officials Have Closed 1500 Mosques Since Start Of 2011". Eurasia Review. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011.
- ↑ Bayram, Mushfig (19 June 2009). "TAJIKISTAN: Religion Law's worst impact is on Muslims". Forum 18 News Service.
- ↑ Bayram, Mushfig (25 January 2011). "TAJIKISTAN: When is a mosque not a mosque?". Forum 18 News Service.
- ↑ Bayram, Mushfig (10 December 2009). "TAJIKISTAN: More than half of religious communities to be "illegal"?". Forum 18 News Service.
- ↑ Bayram, Mushfig; Kinahan, John (17 March 2011). "TAJIKISTAN: Religious freedom survey, March 2011". Forum 18 News Service.
- ↑ Bayram, Mushfig (20 January 2009). "TAJIKISTAN: "No rights to organise prayers"". Forum 18 News Service.
- ↑ Corley, Felix (10 October 2007). "TAJIKISTAN: Authorities demolish mosques, synagogue and churches under threat". Forum 18 News Service.
- ↑ Bayram, Mushfig (26 May 2011). "TAJIKISTAN: Ban on religious education abroad without state permission to be adopted soon?". Forum 18 News Service.
- ↑ Sodiqov, Alexander (March 1, 2011). "Mosques and Islamic Education Under Increasing Scrutiny in Tajikistan". Eurasia Daily Monitor. The Jamestown Foundation. 8 (41). Retrieved 9 November 2015.
- ↑ Najibullah, Farangis (January 10, 2011). "Tajik Government To Issue List Of Approved Sermon Topics". Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty.
- ↑ Freedom House (11 December 2014). Freedom in the World 2014: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 685–. ISBN 978-1-4422-4707-9.
- ↑ "Tajikistan". Freedom House. 2012.
- ↑ "Tajikistan". Freedom House. 2011.
- ↑ "World Report 2015: Tajikistan Events of 2014". Human Rights Watch.
- ↑ Kathrin Lenz-Raymann (December 2014). Securitization of Islam: A Vicious Circle: Counter-Terrorism and Freedom of Religion in Central Asia. transcript Verlag. pp. 193–. ISBN 978-3-8394-2904-4.
- ↑ Bayram, Mushfig (3 March 2014). "TAJIKISTAN: State control of Islam increasing". Forum 18 News Service.
- ↑ Corley, Felix (18 October 2007). "TAJIKISTAN: Jehovah's Witnesses banned". Forum 18 News Service.
- ↑ Bayram, Mushfig (8 October 2008). "TAJIKISTAN: Four religious communities reject government claims to OSCE". Forum 18 News Service.
- ↑ Najibullah, Farangis; Navruzshoh, Zarangez (October 6, 2010). "In Tajikistan, Islamic Names Are The New Fashion". Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty.
- ↑ Trilling, David (8 May 2015). "Tajikistan debates ban on Arabic names as part of crackdown on Islam". The Guardian.
- ↑ Trilling, David (May 5, 2015). "Tajikistan Mulls Ban on Muslim Names". EurasiaNet.org.
- ↑ Moftah, Lora (May 6, 2015). "Tajikistan Muslim Name Ban: Parliament Considers Forbidding Arabic-Sounding Names Amid Crackdown On Islam". International Business Times.
- ↑ Putz, Catherine (May 9, 2015). "Tajikistan Considers Ban on Arabic Names". The Diplomat.
- ↑ Web Desk (May 8, 2015). "After beards, hijabs, Tajikistan wants to ban 'Arabic-sounding' names". The Express Tribune.
- ↑ Najibullah, Farangis; Ganj, Ganjinai; Kholiqzod, Mirzonabi (April 19, 2015). "Tajiks Weigh Ban On 'Bad Names'". Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty.
- ↑ Hayward, John (10 May 2015). "Tajikistan Considers Banning Arabic Names to Hold Islam at Bay". Breitbart.
- 1 2 Orange, Richard (03 Jun 2011). "Tajik President warns parents of dangers of 'scary names'". The Telegraph. Almaty. Check date values in:
|date=
(help) - 1 2 Pannier, Bruce (April 1, 2015). "Central Asia's Controversial Fashion Statements". Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty.
- ↑ Pannier, Bruce (2015-11-09). "Witch Hunt In Tajikistan". Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty.
- ↑ RFE/RL's Tajik Service (2015-09-29). "Shuttered Tajik Islamic Party Branded As Terrorist Group". Rferl.org. Retrieved 2016-01-20.
- ↑ "Tajikistan poised to slide back towards war".
- ↑ Najibullah, Farangis (2015-12-01). "As Tajikistan Limits Islam, Does It Risk Destabilization?". Rferl.org. Retrieved 2016-01-20.
- ↑ Paraszczuk, Joanna (2015-10-29). "Tajikistan's Crackdown On Islam 'Helps IS Recruiters'". Rferl.org. Retrieved 2016-01-20.
- ↑ "Tajikistan shaves 13,000 men's beards to end radicalism". Al Jazeera English. Retrieved 2016-01-20.
- ↑ "The Beard-Busters And Scarf-Snatchers Of Khatlon". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty.
- ↑ "Tajikistan's battle against beards to 'fight radicalisation'". BBC News.
- ↑ Sreeraj TK. "Tajikistan Shaved The Beards Of 13,000 Men In 2015. Here's Why". ScoopWhoop.
- ↑ "Tajikistan Moves To Ban Arabic Names, Marriages Between First Cousins". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty.
- ↑ Kamoludin Abdullaev; Shahram Akbarzaheh (27 April 2010). Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan. Scarecrow Press. pp. 381–. ISBN 978-0-8108-6061-2.
- ↑ "Tajikistan Condemns Iran's Invitation Of Leader Of Banned Islamic Party". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty.
- ↑ "Chinese city bans Islamic beards, headwear and clothing on buses". the Guardian.
- ↑ "Quick Links". CNN.
- ↑ Ali, Aftab (17 June 2015). "China bans Muslims from fasting during Ramadan, say Uighur community". The Independent. London.
- ↑ Jacobs, Andrew (7 October 2013). "Uighurs in China Say Bias Is Growing". The New York Times.
- ↑ Harold Miles Tanner (2009). China: a history. Hackett Publishing. p. 581. ISBN 0-87220-915-6. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ Senate (U S ) Committee on Foreign Relations (2005). State Dept (U S ), ed. Annual Report on International Religious Freedom, 2004. Compiled by State Dept (U S ) (illustrated ed.). Government Printing Office. pp. 159–60. ISBN 0160725526. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- ↑ ALLÈS & CHÉRIF-CHEBBI & HALFON 2003, p. 14.
- ↑ Senate (U S ) Committee on Foreign Relations (2005). State Dept (U S ), ed. Annual Report on International Religious Freedom, 2004. Compiled by State Dept (U S ) (illustrated ed.). Government Printing Office. p. 160. ISBN 0160725526. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- ↑ Szadziewski, Henryk. "Religious Repression of Uyghurs in East Turkestan". Venn Institute. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
- ↑ Kees Versteegh; Mushira Eid (2005). Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics: A-Ed. Brill. pp. 383–. ISBN 978-90-04-14473-6.
The People's Republic, founded in 1949, banned private confessional teaching from the early 1950s to the 1980s, until a more liberal stance allowed religious mosque education to resume and private Muslim schools to open. Moreoever, except in Xinjiang for fear of secessionist feelings, the government allowed and sometimes encouraged the founding of private Muslim schools in order to provide education for people who could not attend increasingly expensive state schools or who left them early, for lack of money or lack of satisfactory achievements.
- ↑ Beech, Hannah (Aug 12, 2014). "If China Is Anti-Islam, Why Are These Chinese Muslims Enjoying a Faith Revival?". Time. TIME magazine. Retrieved 25 June 2015.
- ↑ Bovingdon, Gardner (2013). The Uyghurs: Strangers in Their Own Land (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231519419. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- ↑ "Faith flourishes in an arid wasteland". South China Morning Post.
- ↑ Brent Crane; The Diplomat. "A Tale of Two Chinese Muslim Minorities". The Diplomat.
- ↑ Rudelson & Rudelson 1997, p. 31.
- ↑ Rudelson & Rudelson 1997, pp. 46-7.
- ↑ Central Asia Monitor 1993, p. 19.
- ↑ Mackerras 2003, p. 118.
- ↑ Svanberg & Westerlund 2012, p. 202.
- ↑ Rudelson & Rudelson 1997, p. 81.
- ↑ Rudelson & Rudelson 1997, p. 129.
- ↑ Svanberg & Westerlund 2012, p. 205.
- ↑ .The Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan and the Formation of Modern Uyghur Identity in Xinjiang, by JOY R. LEE
- ↑ Robyn R. Iredale; Naran Bilik; Fei Guo (2003). China's minorities on the move: selected case studies. M.E. Sharpe. p. 170. ISBN 0-7656-1023-X. Retrieved 2010-07-30.
- ↑ IOC-Champa. "Mission to Vietnam Advocacy Day (Vietnamese-American Meet up 2013) in the U.S. Capitol. A UPR report By IOC-Campa.".
- ↑ Philip Taylor. "Economy in Motion: Cham Muslim Traders in the Mekong Delta" (PDF). Chamstudies.com. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
- ↑ "BBC News - Sri Lanka crowd attacks Muslim warehouse in Colombo". BBC News. 29 March 2013.
- ↑ "Ban Halal certification". The Daily Mirror (Sri Lanka). 17 February 2013.
- ↑ "The hardline Buddhists targeting Sri Lanka's Muslims". BBC. March 25, 2013.
- ↑ "Burma unrest: UN body says 90,000 displaced by violence". BBC News. 20 June 2012. Retrieved 27 March 2013.
- ↑ Peter Ford (June 12, 2012). "Why deadly race riots could rattle Myanmar's fledgling reforms". Csmonitor.com.
- ↑ "The facts from Godhra".
- ↑ India Godhra train blaze verdict: 31 convicted BBC News, 22 February 2011.
- ↑ Dasgupta, Manas (March 6, 2011). "It was not a random attack on S-6 but kar sevaks were targeted, says judge". The Hindu. Chennai, India.
- ↑ "The Godhra conspiracy as Justice Nanavati saw it".
- ↑ "WebCite query result".
- ↑ "790 Muslims perished in post-Godhra". Times of India. India. 11 May 2005. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ↑ "790 Muslims, 254 Hindus perished in post-Godhra". BBC News. 13 May 2005. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ↑ "DESTROYED, DAMAGED RELIGIOUS STRUCTURES IN GUJARAT Govt. Silent on when to provide compensation". Radiance Viewsweekly {radianceweekly.com.}
- ↑ "Godhara Incident" (PDF). home.gujarat.gov.in.
- ↑ "'Post-Godhra toll: 254 Hindus, 790 Muslims'". Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 25 September 2009.
- ↑ "rediff.com: Vajpayee to visit two relief camps in Ahmedabad". Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 25 September 2009.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Fischer, Andrew Martin (September 2005). "Close encounters of in Inner-Asian kind: Tibetan–Muslim coexistence and conflict in Tibet, past and present" (PDF). CSRC Working Paper series. Crisis States Research Centre (Working Paper no.68): 1–2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2006. Retrieved 26 September 2015.
- ↑ "Tibetans, Muslim Huis clash in China". CNN. 2003-02-23. Retrieved 2010-01-15.
- ↑ Demick, Barbara (23 June 2008). "Tibetan-Muslim tensions roil China". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 22 June 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ↑ Mayaram, Shail (2009). The other global city. Taylor Francis US. p. 75. ISBN 0-415-99194-3. Retrieved 2010-07-30.
- ↑ "Ethnic Clashes Over Gansu Mosque". Radio Free Asia.
- ↑ "Police shut Muslim quarter in Lhasa". CNN. LHASA, Tibet. 28 March 2008. Archived from the original on 4 April 2008.
- ↑ A.A. (November 11, 2012). "The living picture of frustration". The Economist. Retrieved 2014-01-15.
- ↑ "Eight dead in Central African Republic capital, rebel leaders flee city". Reuters. 26 January 2014.
- ↑ "BBC News - Central African Republic militia 'killed' children". BBC News. 4 December 2013.
- ↑ Andrew Katz (May 29, 2014). "'A Question of Humanity': Witness to the Turning Point In Central African Republic". Time.
- ↑ "Christian threats force Muslim convoy to turn back in CAR exodus". The Guardian. 14 February 2014. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
- ↑ "France and the Militarization of Central Africa: Thousands of Muslims Fleeing the Central African Republic". The Guardian. 14 February 2014. Retrieved 17 February 2014.