Norway

This percentage is for the mainland, Svalbard, and Jan Mayen. This percentage counts glaciers as "land". It's calculated as 19,940.14/(365,246.17+19,940.14).^[8]

^c.

Two more TLDs have been assigned, but are not used: .sj for Svalbard and Jan Mayen; .bv for Bouvet Island.

Norway (ⁱ/ˈnɔːrweɪ/ NAWR-way; Norwegian: Norge (Bokmål) or Noreg (Nynorsk)), officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a sovereign and unitary monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula plus the island Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard.^{[note 1]} The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land. Until 1814, the Kingdom included the Faroe Islands (since 1035), Greenland (1261), and Iceland (1262). It also included Shetland and Orkney until 1468.

Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres (148,747 sq mi) and a population of 5,213,985 (May 2016).^[16] The country shares a long eastern border with Sweden (1,619 km or 1,006 mi long). Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, and the Skagerrak Strait to the south, with Denmark on the other side. Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea.

King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway. Erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet, and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution. The Kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872 the Kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, and the list of Norwegian monarchs includes over sixty kings and earls.

Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels: counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have a certain amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament and the Finnmark Act. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States. Norway is a founding member of the United Nations, NATO, the Council of Europe, the Antarctic Treaty and the Nordic Council; a member of the European Economic Area, the WTO and the OECD; and is also a part of the Schengen Area.

The country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, fresh water, and hydropower. The petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the country's gross domestic product (GDP).^[17] On a per-capita basis, Norway is the world's largest producer of oil and natural gas outside the Middle East.^[18]^[19]

The country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists.^[20] On the CIA's GDP (PPP) per capita list (2015 estimate) which includes territories and some regions, Norway ranks as number eleven.^[21] From 2001 to 2006,^[22] and then again from 2009 to 2015, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world.^[13]^[23]^[24]^[25] Norway has topped the Legatum Prosperity Index for seven years in a row as of 2015.^[26] Norway also ranks first on the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity, and the Democracy Index.^[27]

Etymology

Opening of Ohthere's Old English account, translated: "Ohthere told his lord Ælfrede king that he lived northmost of all Norwegians ... "

Norway has two official names: Noreg in Nynorsk (Old Norse: Noregr) and Norge in Bokmål (Old Norse: Noregi, dative of Noregr).

The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg(r) mentioned in 880, meaning "northern way" or "way leading to the north", which the Anglo-Saxon named the coastline of atlantic Norway.^[28]^[29] In contrasting with suðrvegar "southern way" for Germany, and austrvegr "eastern way" for the Baltic. The Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land.^[28]^[29]

Philology professor Michael Schulte, also earlier by Magnus Olsen mentioned that the Old Norse names Nuruiak, Nuriki (Nur- :narrow, -riki :kingdom) and later Noregr (Nore- :narrow -gr :way), given by the innhabitats of Norway themselves, refers to the inner-archipelago sailing route of southwestern Norway.^[28]^[29] This was the home area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and that because of him, the name was extended to the entire country. The newer interpretation of the syllable is Norvegr, where nor(ve)- means narrow (Nynorsk: norve) and -(ve)gr (Nynorsk: veg) means way that refers to the sailing routes through the straits of Norway.^[28]^[29] The old meaning of the word is interpreted as "The narrow way through the strait".^[28]^[29] Nore is still used in placenames like example the village of Nore and lake Norefjorden in Buskerud county, and has still the same meaning.^[28]^[29]

In a Latin manuscript of 849, the name Northuagia is mentioned, while a French chronicle of c. 900 uses the names Northwegia and Norwegia.^[30] When Ohthere of Hålogaland visited King Alfred the Great in England in the end of the 9th century, the land was called Norðwegr (lit. Northway) and norðmanna land (lit. Northmen's land).^[30]

Old Norse norðmaðr was Latinized as Nortmannus in the 9th century to mean "Norseman" and also "Viking", giving rise to the name of the Normans.^[31] After Norway had become Christian, Noregr and Noregi had become the most common forms, but during the 15th century the newer forms Noreg(h) and Norg(h)e, found in medieval Icelandic manuscripts, took over and have survived until modern day.

The Old Norse name Noregr (narrow strait) was borrowed into Old English, and was according to language student and activist Klaus Johan Myrvoll, first revealed by philologist Niels Halvorsen Trønnes in 1847, as misinterpreted for Norðweg and Norweg (northern way), giving rise to modern Norway by regular development via Middle English Norwei and Norwey.^[28]^[29] The letter ð was not used in any Old Norse spellings of the name Norway, and was wrongly added into the English word, changing the meaning to North (Old English: Norðr, Norwegian: Nord), who also influenced the old Latin names as Nortwegia and Northmannia with the same spelling mistake.^[28]^[29]

The adjective Norwegian, on the other hand, recorded from c. 1600, is derived from the latinisation of the name as Norwegia. In the adjective Norwegian, the Old English spelling '-weg' has survived.

History

Main articles: History of Norway and History of Scandinavia

Prehistory

Nordic Bronze Age rock carvings at Steinkjer, Central Norway

Main article: Scandinavian prehistory

The first inhabitants were the Ahrensburg culture (11th to 10th millennia BC), which was a late Upper Paleolithic culture during the Younger Dryas, the last period of cold at the end of the Weichsel glaciation. The culture is named after the village of Ahrensburg, 25 km (15.53 mi) north-east of Hamburg in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein, where wooden arrow shafts and clubs have been excavated.^[32] The earliest traces of human occupation in Norway are found along the coast, where the huge ice shelf of the last ice age first melted between 11,000 and 8,000 BC. The oldest finds are stone tools dating from 9,500 to 6,000 BC, discovered in Finnmark (Komsa culture) in the north and Rogaland (Fosna culture) in the south-west. However, theories about two altogether different cultures (the Komsa culture north of the Arctic Circle being one and the Fosna culture from Trøndelag to Oslo Fjord being the other) were rendered obsolete in the 1970s.

Approximate extent of the Corded Ware culture

More recent finds along the entire coast revealed to archaeologists that the difference between the two can simply be ascribed to different types of tools and not to different cultures. Coastal fauna provided a means of livelihood for fishermen and hunters, who may have made their way along the southern coast about 10,000 BC when the interior was still covered with ice. It is now thought that these so-called "Arctic" peoples came from the south and followed the coast northward considerably later.

In the southern part of the country are dwelling sites dating from about 5,000 BC. Finds from these sites give a clearer idea of the life of the hunting and fishing peoples. The implements vary in shape and mostly are made of different kinds of stone; those of later periods are more skilfully made. Rock carvings (i.e. petroglyphs) have been found, usually near hunting and fishing grounds. They represent game such as deer, reindeer, elk, bears, birds, seals, whales, and fish (especially salmon and halibut), all of which were vital to the way of life of the coastal peoples. The carvings at Alta in Finnmark, the largest in Scandinavia, were made at sea level from 4,200 to 500 BC and mark the progression of the land as the sea rose after the last ice age ended (Rock carvings at Alta).

Bronze Age

Locations of the Germanic tribes described by Jordanes in Norway

Main article: Nordic Bronze Age

Between 3000 and 2500 BC new settlers (Corded Ware culture) arrived in eastern Norway. They were Indo-European farmers who grew grain and kept cows and sheep. The hunting-fishing population of the west coast was also gradually replaced by farmers, though hunting and fishing remained useful secondary means of livelihood.

From about 1500 BC bronze was gradually introduced, but the use of stone implements continued; Norway had few riches to barter for bronze goods, and the few finds consist mostly of elaborate weapons and brooches that only chieftains could afford. Huge burial cairns built close to the sea as far north as Harstad and also inland in the south are characteristic of this period. The motifs of the rock carvings differ from those typical of the Stone Age. Representations of the Sun, animals, trees, weapons, ships, and people are all strongly stylised.

Thousands of rock carvings from this period depict ships, and the large stone burial monuments known as stone ships, suggest that ships and seafaring played an important role in the culture at large. The depicted ships, most likely represent sewn plank built canoes used for warfare, fishing and trade. These ship types may have their origin as far back as the neolithic period and they continue into the Pre-Roman Iron Age, as exemplified by the Hjortspring boat.^[33]

Iron Age

Main article: Iron Age Scandinavia

Little has been found dating from the early Iron Age (the last 500 years BC). The dead were cremated, and their graves contain few burial goods. During the first four centuries AD the people of Norway were in contact with Roman-occupied Gaul. About 70 Roman bronze cauldrons, often used as burial urns, have been found. Contact with the civilised countries farther south brought a knowledge of runes; the oldest known Norwegian runic inscription dates from the 3rd century. At this time the amount of settled area in the country increased, a development that can be traced by coordinated studies of topography, archaeology, and place-names. The oldest root names, such as nes, vik, and bø ("cape," "bay," and "farm"), are of great antiquity, dating perhaps from the Bronze Age, whereas the earliest of the groups of compound names with the suffixes vin ("meadow") or heim ("settlement"), as in Bjorgvin (Bergen) or Saeheim (Seim), usually date from the 1st century AD.

Archaeologists first made the decision to divide the Iron Age of Northern Europe into distinct pre-Roman and Roman Iron Ages after Emil Vedel unearthed a number of Iron Age artefacts in 1866 on the island of Bornholm.^[34] They did not exhibit the same permeating Roman influence seen in most other artefacts from the early centuries AD, indicating that parts of northern Europe had not yet come into contact with the Romans at the beginning of the Iron Age.

Migration period

Viking swords found in Norway, preserved at Bergen Museum

Main article: Migration period

Viking Age

Main article: Viking Age

Viking helmet found at Gjermundbu in Buskerud, is the only complete Viking Age helmet that has been found

The Gokstad ship at the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo, Norway

From the 8th to the 10th century, the wider Scandinavian region was the source of Vikings. The looting of the monastery at Lindisfarne in Northeast England in 793 by Norse people has long been regarded as the event which marked the beginning of the Viking Age.^[35] This age was characterised by expansion and emigration by Viking seafarers. They colonised, raided, and traded in all parts of Europe. Norwegian Viking explorers first discovered Iceland by accident in the 9th century when heading for the Faroe Islands, and eventually came across Vinland, known today as Newfoundland, in Canada. The Vikings from Norway were most active in the northern and western British Isles and eastern North America isles.

According to tradition, Harald Fairhair unified them into one in 872 after the Battle of Hafrsfjord in Stavanger, thus becoming the first king of a united Norway.^[36] Harald's realm was mainly a South Norwegian coastal state. Fairhair ruled with a strong hand and according to the sagas, many Norwegians left the country to live in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and parts of Britain and Ireland. The modern-day Irish cities of Dublin, Limerick and Waterford were founded by Norwegian settlers.^[37]

Norwegian, Danish and Swedish expansion during the Viking age between 800–1050

Norse traditions were slowly replaced by Christian ones in the late 10th and early 11th centuries.One of the most important sources for the history of the 11th century Vikings is the treaty between the Icelanders and Olaf Haraldsson, king of Norway circa 1015 to 1028.^[38] This is largely attributed to the missionary kings Olav Tryggvasson and St. Olav. Haakon the Good was Norway's first Christian king, in the mid-10th century, though his attempt to introduce the religion was rejected. Born sometime in between 963–969, Olav Tryggvasson set off raiding in England with 390 ships. He attacked London during this raiding. Arriving back in Norway in 995, Olav landed in Moster. There he built a church which became the first Christian church ever built in Norway. From Moster, Olav sailed north to Trondheim where he was proclaimed King of Norway by the Eyrathing in 995.^[39]

Feudalism never really developed in Norway or Sweden, as it did in the rest of Europe. However, the administration of government took on a very conservative feudal character. The Hanseatic League forced the royalty to cede to them greater and greater concessions over foreign trade and the economy. The League had this hold over the royalty because of the loans the Hansa had made to the royalty and the large debt the kings were carrying. The League's monopolistic control over the economy of Norway put pressure on all classes, especially the peasantry, to the degree that no real burgher class existed in Norway.^[40]

Kalmar Union

Main article: Kalmar Union

Union with Denmark

Main article: Denmark–Norway

Union with Sweden

Main article: United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway

The 1814 constitutional assembly, painted by Oscar Wergeland

After Denmark–Norway was attacked by the United Kingdom at the Battle of Copenhagen, it entered into an alliance with Napoleon, with the war leading to dire conditions and mass starvation in 1812. As the Danish kingdom found itself on the losing side in 1814, it was forced, under terms of the Treaty of Kiel, to cede Norway to the king of Sweden, while the old Norwegian provinces of Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands remained with the Danish crown.^[49]

Norway took this opportunity to declare independence, adopted a constitution based on American and French models, and elected the Crown Prince of Denmark and Norway, Christian Frederick, as king on 17 May 1814. This is the famous Syttende Mai (Seventeenth of May) holiday celebrated by Norwegians and Norwegian-Americans alike. Syttende Mai is also called Norwegian Constitution Day.

Norwegian opposition to the great powers' decision to link Norway with Sweden caused the Norwegian-Swedish War to break out as Sweden tried to subdue Norway by military means. As Sweden's military was not strong enough to defeat the Norwegian forces outright and Norway's treasury was not large enough to support a protracted war, and as British and Russian navies blockaded the Norwegian coast,^[50] the belligerents were forced to negotiate the Convention of Moss. According to the terms of the convention, Christian Frederik abdicated the Norwegian throne and authorised the Parliament of Norway to make the necessary constitutional amendments to allow for the personal union that Norway was forced to accept. On 4 November 1814 the Parliament (Storting) elected Charles XIII of Sweden as king of Norway, thereby establishing the union with Sweden.^[51] Under this arrangement, Norway kept its liberal constitution and its own independent institutions, except for the foreign service. Following the recession caused by the Napoleonic Wars, economic development of Norway remained slow until economic growth began around 1830.^[52]

Harvesting of oats in Jølster around 1890

This period also saw the rise of the Norwegian romantic nationalism, as Norwegians sought to define and express a distinct national character. The movement covered all branches of culture, including literature (Henrik Wergeland [1808–1845], Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson [1832–1910], Peter Christen Asbjørnsen [1812–1845], Jørgen Moe [1813–1882]), painting (Hans Gude [1825–1903], Adolph Tidemand [1814–1876]), music (Edvard Grieg [1843–1907]), and even language policy, where attempts to define a native written language for Norway led to today's two official written forms for Norwegian: Bokmål and Nynorsk.

King Charles III John, who came to the throne of Norway and Sweden in 1818, was the second king following Norway's break from Denmark and the union with Sweden. Charles John was a complex man whose long reign extended to 1844. He protected the constitution and liberties of Norway and Sweden during the age of Metternich. As such, he was regarded as a liberal monarch for that age. However, he was ruthless in his use of paid informers, the secret police and restrictions on the freedom of the press to put down public movements for reform—especially the Norwegian national independence movement.^[53]

The Romantic Era that followed the reign of King Charles III John brought some significant social and political reforms. In 1854, women won the right to inherit property in their own right just like men. In 1863, the last trace of keeping unmarried women in the status of minors was removed. Furthermore, women were then eligible for different occupations, particularly the common school teacher.^[54] However, by mid-century, Norway was still far from a "democracy". Voting was limited to officials, property owners, leaseholders, and burghers of incorporated towns.^[55] There was some dissatisfaction with this system.

A Sami family in Norway around 1900

Still Norway remained a conservative society. Life in Norway (especially economic life) was "dominated by the aristocracy of professional men who filled most of the important posts in the central government."^[56] There was no strong bourgeosie class in Norway to demand a breakdown of this aristocratic control of the economy.^[57] Thus, even while revolution swept over most of the countries of Europe in 1848, Norway was largely unaffected by revolts that year.^[57]

Marcus Thrane was a Utopian socialist. He made his appeal to the labouring classes urging a change of social structure "from below upwards." In 1848, he organised a labour society in Drammen. In just a few months this society had a membership of 500 and was publishing its own newspaper. Within two years 300 societies had been organised all over Norway with a total membership of 20,000 persons. The membership was drawn from the lower classes of both urban and rural areas; for the first time these two groups felt they had a common cause.^[58] In the end, the revolt was easily crushed; Thrane was captured and in 1855, after four years in jail, was sentenced to three additional years for crimes against the safety of the state. Upon his release, Marcus Thrane attempted unsuccessfully to revitalise his movement but, after the death of his wife, migrated to the United States.^[59]

In 1898, all men were granted universal suffrage, followed by all women in 1913.

A bride from Hardanger in national costume about 1900's.

Dissolution of the union

Main articles: Union dissolution referendum and Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden

Christian Michelsen, a shipping magnate and statesman, and Prime Minister of Norway from 1905 to 1907, played a central role in the peaceful separation of Norway from Sweden on 7 June 1905. A national referendum confirmed the people's preference for a monarchy over a republic. No Norwegian could legitimately claim the throne because none was able to prove relationship to medieval royalty and in European tradition royal or "blue" blood is a precondition for laying claim to the throne.

The government offered the throne of Norway to a prince of the German royal house of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. Prince Carl of Denmark was unanimously elected king by the Norwegian Parliament, the first king of a fully independent Norway in 508 years (1397: Kalmar Union); he took the name Haakon VII. In 1905, the country welcomed the prince from neighbouring Denmark, his wife Maud of Wales and their young son to re-establish Norway's royal house. Following centuries of close ties between Norway and Denmark, a prince from the latter was the obvious choice for a European prince who could best relate to the Norwegian people.

First and Second World Wars

Scenes from the Norwegian Campaign in 1940

Throughout the First World War, Norway was in principle a neutral country. In reality, however, Norway had been pressured by the British to hand over increasingly large parts of its large merchant fleet to the British at low rates, as well as to join the trade blockade against Germany. Norwegian merchant marine ships, often with Norwegian sailors still on board, were then sailing under the British flag and at risk of being sunk by German submarines. Thus, many Norwegian sailors and ships were lost. Thereafter, the world ranking of the Norwegian merchant navy fell from fourth place to sixth in the world.^[60]

Norway also proclaimed its neutrality during the Second World War, but despite this it was invaded by German forces on 9 April 1940. Although Norway was unprepared for the German surprise attack (see: Battle of Drøbak Sound, Norwegian Campaign, and Invasion of Norway), military and naval resistance lasted for two months. Norwegian armed forces in the north launched an offensive against the German forces in the Battles of Narvik, until they were forced to surrender on 10 June after losing British support which had been diverted to France during the German invasion of France.

King Haakon and the Norwegian government escaped to Rotherhithe in London. Throughout the war they sent inspirational radio speeches and supported clandestine military actions in Norway against the Germans. On the day of the invasion, the leader of the small National-Socialist party Nasjonal Samling, Vidkun Quisling, tried to seize power but was forced by the German occupiers to step aside. Real power was wielded by the leader of the German occupation authority, Reichskommissar Josef Terboven. Quisling, as minister president, later formed a collaborationist government under German control. Up to 15,000 Norwegians volunteered to fight in German units, including the Waffen-SS.^[61]

Norwegian fighter pilots in the United Kingdom during World War II

The fraction of the Norwegian population that supported Germany was traditionally smaller than in Sweden but greater than is generally appreciated today. It included a number of prominent personalities such as Knut Hamsun. The concept of a "Germanic Union" of member states fit well into their thoroughly nationalist-patriotic ideology.

Many Norwegians and persons of Norwegian descent joined the Allied forces as well as the Free Norwegian Forces. In June 1940 a small group had left Norway following their king to Britain. This group included 13 ships, five aircraft, and 500 men from the Royal Norwegian Navy. By the end of the war, the force had grown to 58 ships and 7,500 men in service in the Royal Norwegian Navy, 5 squadrons of aircraft (including Spitfires, Sunderland flying boats and Mosquitos) in the newly formed Norwegian Air Force, and land forces including the Norwegian Independent Company 1 and 5 Troop as well as No. 10 Commandos.

During the five years of German occupation, Norwegians built a resistance movement which fought the German occupation forces with both civil disobedience and armed resistance including the destruction of Norsk Hydro's heavy water plant and stockpile of heavy water at Vemork, which crippled the German nuclear programme (see: Norwegian heavy water sabotage). More important to the Allied war effort, however, was the role of the Norwegian Merchant Marine. At the time of the invasion, Norway had the 4th largest merchant marine fleet in the world. It was led by the Norwegian shipping company Nortraship under the Allies throughout the war and took part in every war operation from the evacuation of Dunkirk to the Normandy landings. Each December Norway gives a Christmas tree to the United Kingdom as thanks for the British assistance during the Second World War. A ceremony takes place to erect the tree in London's Trafalgar Square.^[62]

Post-World War II history

From 1945 to 1962, the Labour Party held an absolute majority in the parliament. The government, led by prime minister Einar Gerhardsen, embarked on a programme inspired by Keynesian economics, emphasising state financed industrialisation and co-operation between trade unions and employers' organisations. Many measures of state control of the economy imposed during the war were continued, although the rationing of dairy products was lifted in 1949, while price control and rationing of housing and cars continued as long as until 1960.

Since the 1980s oil production has helped to expand the Norwegian economy and finance the Norwegian state.

The wartime alliance with the United Kingdom and the United States was continued in the post-war years. Although pursuing the goal of a socialist economy, the Labour Party distanced itself from the Communists (especially after the Communists' seizure of power in Czechoslovakia in 1948), and strengthened its foreign policy and defence policy ties with the US. Norway received Marshall Plan aid from the United States starting in 1947, joined the OEEC one year later, and became a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949.

In 1969, the Phillips Petroleum Company discovered petroleum resources at the Ekofisk field west of Norway. In 1973, the Norwegian government founded the State oil company, Statoil. Oil production did not provide net income until the early 1980s because of the large capital investment that was required to establish the country's petroleum industry. Around 1975, both the proportion and absolute number of workers in industry peaked. Since then labour-intensive industries and services like factory mass production and shipping have largely been outsourced.

Norway was a founding member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Two referendums on joining the European Union failed by narrow margins in 1972 and 1994.^[63]

Town Hall Square in Oslo filled with people with roses mourning the victims of the Utøya massacre, 22 July 2011

In 1981, a Conservative government led by Kåre Willoch replaced the Labour Party with a policy of stimulating the stagflated economy with tax cuts, economic liberalisation, deregulation of markets, and measures to curb record-high inflation (13.6% in 1981).

Norway's first female prime minister, Gro Harlem Brundtland of the Labour party, continued many of the reforms of her conservative predecessor, while backing traditional Labour concerns such as social security, high taxes, the industrialisation of nature, and feminism. By the late 1990s, Norway had paid off its foreign debt and had started accumulating a sovereign wealth fund. Since the 1990s, a divisive question in politics has been how much of the income from petroleum production the government should spend, and how much it should save.

In 2011, Norway suffered two terrorist attacks on the same day conducted by Anders Behring Breivik which struck the government quarter in Oslo and a summer camp of the Labour party's youth movement at Utøya island, resulting in 77 deaths and 319 wounded.

The 2013 Norwegian parliamentary election brought a more conservative government to power with the Conservative Party and the Progress Party, winning 43% of the electorate's votes.

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Norway and Geology of Norway

A satellite image of continental Norway in winter

The tallest vertical rock face in Europe, Trollveggen and Trollryggen over the river Rauma in Romsdalen valley.

Norway comprises the western part of Scandinavia in Northern Europe. The rugged coastline, broken by huge fjords and thousands of islands, stretches 25,000 kilometres (16,000 mi) and 83,000 kilometres (52,000 mi). Norway shares a 1,619-kilometre (1,006 mi) land border with Sweden, 727 kilometres (452 mi) with Finland, and 196 kilometres (122 mi) with Russia to the east. To the north, west and south, Norway is bordered by the Barents Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the North Sea, and Skagerrak.^[64] The Scandinavian Mountains form much of the border with Sweden.

Norwegian lowland landscape near the Gaulosen branch of Trondheimsfjord

Reine in Lofoten, Northern Norway

At 385,252 square kilometres (148,747 sq mi) (including Svalbard and Jan Mayen) (and 323,802 square kilometres (125,021 sq mi) without), much of the country is dominated by mountainous or high terrain, with a great variety of natural features caused by prehistoric glaciers and varied topography. The most noticeable of these are the fjords: deep grooves cut into the land flooded by the sea following the end of the Ice Age. Sognefjorden is the world's second deepest fjord, and the world's longest at 204 kilometres (127 mi). Hornindalsvatnet is the deepest lake in all Europe.^[65] Permafrost can be found all year in the higher mountain areas and in the interior of Finnmark county. Numerous glaciers are found in Norway.

Norway lies between latitudes 57° and 81° N, and longitudes 4° and 32° E.

The land is mostly made of hard granite and gneiss rock, but slate, sandstone, and limestone are also common, and the lowest elevations contain marine deposits. Because of the Gulf Stream and prevailing westerlies, Norway experiences higher temperatures and more precipitation than expected at such northern latitudes, especially along the coast. The mainland experiences four distinct seasons, with colder winters and less precipitation inland. The northernmost part has a mostly maritime Subarctic climate, while Svalbard has an Arctic tundra climate.

Because of the large latitudinal range of the country and the varied topography and climate, Norway has a larger number of different habitats than almost any other European country. There are approximately 60,000 species in Norway and adjacent waters (excluding bacteria and virus). The Norwegian Shelf large marine ecosystem is considered highly productive.^[66]

Climate

The southern and western parts of Norway, fully exposed to Atlantic storm fronts, experience more precipitation and have milder winters than the eastern and far northern parts. Areas to the east of the coastal mountains are in a rain shadow, and have lower rain and snow totals than the west. The lowlands around Oslo have the warmest and sunniest summers, but also cold weather and snow in wintertime.

Because of Norway's high latitude, there are large seasonal variations in daylight. From late May to late July, the sun never completely descends beneath the horizon in areas north of the Arctic Circle (hence Norway's description as the "Land of the Midnight Sun"), and the rest of the country experiences up to 20 hours of daylight per day. Conversely, from late November to late January, the sun never rises above the horizon in the north, and daylight hours are very short in the rest of the country.

The coastal climate of Norway is exceptionally mild compared with areas on similar latitudes elsewhere in the world, with the Gulf Stream passing directly offshore the northern areas of the Atlantic coast, continuously warming the region in the winter. Temperature anomalies found in coastal locations are exceptional, with Røst and Værøy lacking a meteorological winter in spite of being north of the Arctic Circle. The Gulf Stream has this effect only on the northern parts of Norway, not in the south, despite what is commonly believed. The northern coast of Norway would thus be ice-covered if not for the Gulf Stream.^[67] As a side-effect, the Scandinavian Mountains prevent continental winds from reaching the coastline, causing very cool summers throughout Atlantic Norway. Oslo has more of a continental climate, similar to Sweden's. The mountain ranges have subarctic and tundra climates. There is also very high rainfall in areas exposed to the Atlantic, such as Bergen. Oslo, in comparison, is dry, being in a rain shadow. Skjåk in Oppland county is also in the rain shadow and is one of the driest places with 278 millimetres (10.9 inches) precipitation annually. Finnmarksvidda and the interior valleys of Troms and Nordland also receive less than 300 millimetres (12 inches) annually. Longyearbyen is the driest place in Norway with 190 millimetres (7.5 inches).^[68]

Parts of southeastern Norway including parts of Mjøsa have warm-summer humid continental climates (Köppen Dfb), while the more southern and western coasts are mostly of the oceanic climate (Cfb). Further inland in (southeastern and northern Norway, subarctic climate (Dfc) dominates; this is especially true for areas in the rain shadow of the Scandinavian Mountains. Some of the inner valleys of Oppland get so little precipitation annually, thanks to the rain shadow effect, that they meet the requirements for dry-summer subarctic climates (Dsc). In higher altitudes, close to the coasts of southern and western Norway, one can find the rare subpolar oceanic climate (Cfc). This climate is also common in Northern Norway but there usually in lower altitudes, all the way down to sea level. A small part of the northernmost coast of Norway has the tundra/alpine/polar climate (ET). Large parts of Norway are covered by mountains and high altitude plateaus, many of which also exhibit the tundra/alpine/polar climate (ET).

Climate data for Oslo-Blindern (Köppen Dfb) (1961–1990), Norway
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	12.5 (54.5)	12.8 (55)	17.0 (62.6)	21.8 (71.2)	27.7 (81.9)	32.2 (90)	30.5 (86.9)	34.2 (93.6)	24.9 (76.8)	21.0 (69.8)	14.4 (57.9)	12.4 (54.3)	34.2 (93.6)
Average high °C (°F)	−1.8 (28.8)	−0.9 (30.4)	3.5 (38.3)	9.1 (48.4)	15.8 (60.4)	20.4 (68.7)	21.5 (70.7)	20.1 (68.2)	15.1 (59.2)	9.3 (48.7)	3.2 (37.8)	−0.5 (31.1)	9.57 (49.22)
Daily mean °C (°F)	−4.3 (24.3)	−4.0 (24.8)	−0.2 (31.6)	4.5 (40.1)	10.8 (51.4)	15.2 (59.4)	16.4 (61.5)	15.2 (59.4)	10.8 (51.4)	6.3 (43.3)	0.7 (33.3)	−3.1 (26.4)	5.69 (42.24)
Average low °C (°F)	−6.8 (19.8)	−6.8 (19.8)	−3.3 (26.1)	0.8 (33.4)	6.5 (43.7)	10.6 (51.1)	12.2 (54)	11.3 (52.3)	7.5 (45.5)	3.8 (38.8)	−1.5 (29.3)	−5.6 (21.9)	2.39 (36.31)
Record low °C (°F)	−24.3 (−11.7)	−24.9 (−12.8)	−20.2 (−4.4)	−9.8 (14.4)	−2.7 (27.1)	1.4 (34.5)	5.0 (41)	3.7 (38.7)	−2.0 (28.4)	−7.4 (18.7)	−16.0 (3.2)	−20.8 (−5.4)	−24.9 (−12.8)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	49 (1.93)	36 (1.42)	47 (1.85)	41 (1.61)	53 (2.09)	65 (2.56)	81 (3.19)	89 (3.5)	90 (3.54)	84 (3.31)	73 (2.87)	55 (2.17)	763 (30.04)
Average precipitation days	6	4	6	5	5	7	7	8	7	8	8	6	77
Mean monthly sunshine hours	40	76	126	178	220	250	246	216	144	86	51	35	1,668
Source #1: Norwegian Meteorological Institute eklima.met.no
Source #2: Met.no^[69] (precipitation > 3 mm)

Climate data for Bergen (Köppen Cfb), 1961–1990
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	16.9 (62.4)	13.2 (55.8)	17.2 (63)	22.5 (72.5)	27.6 (81.7)	29.9 (85.8)	31.8 (89.2)	31.0 (87.8)	27.1 (80.8)	23.1 (73.6)	17.9 (64.2)	13.9 (57)	31.8 (89.2)
Average high °C (°F)	4.4 (39.9)	4.8 (40.6)	7.1 (44.8)	11.5 (52.7)	14.9 (58.8)	18.0 (64.4)	20.7 (69.3)	19.4 (66.9)	15.9 (60.6)	12.2 (54)	8.2 (46.8)	4.9 (40.8)	11.83 (53.3)
Daily mean °C (°F)	2.2 (36)	2.1 (35.8)	3.8 (38.8)	7.4 (45.3)	10.6 (51.1)	13.5 (56.3)	16.4 (61.5)	15.3 (59.5)	12.5 (54.5)	9.1 (48.4)	5.7 (42.3)	2.7 (36.9)	8.44 (47.2)
Average low °C (°F)	0.1 (32.2)	−0.1 (31.8)	1.1 (34)	4.0 (39.2)	6.9 (44.4)	9.9 (49.8)	13.2 (55.8)	12.4 (54.3)	9.9 (49.8)	6.5 (43.7)	3.6 (38.5)	0.5 (32.9)	5.67 (42.2)
Record low °C (°F)	−16.3 (2.7)	−13.4 (7.9)	−11.3 (11.7)	−5.5 (22.1)	−0.1 (31.8)	0.8 (33.4)	2.5 (36.5)	2.5 (36.5)	0.0 (32)	−5.5 (22.1)	−10.0 (14)	−13.0 (8.6)	−16.3 (2.7)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	190 (7.48)	152 (5.98)	170 (6.69)	114 (4.49)	106 (4.17)	132 (5.2)	148 (5.83)	190 (7.48)	283 (11.14)	271 (10.67)	259 (10.2)	235 (9.25)	2,250 (88.58)
Average rainy days (≥ 1 mm)	20	15	17	13	14	11	15	17	20	22	17	21	202
Average relative humidity (%)	78	76	73	72	72	76	77	78	79	79	78	79	76.4
Mean monthly sunshine hours	19	56	94	147	186	189	167	144	86	60	27	12	1,187
Source #1: http://sharki.oslo.dnmi.no/pls/portal/BATCH_ORDER.PORTLET_UTIL.Download_BLob?p_BatchId=666089&p_IntervalId=1351224(eklima.no) (high and low temperatures),^[70] NOAA (all else, except extremes)^[71]
Source #2: Voodoo Skies for extremes^[72]

Climate data for Brønnøysund (Köppen Cfc), 1960-1990
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Daily mean °C (°F)	−1.1 (30)	−0.6 (30.9)	0.9 (33.6)	3.7 (38.7)	8.4 (47.1)	11.2 (52.2)	13.1 (55.6)	13.0 (55.4)	9.8 (49.6)	6.6 (43.9)	2.2 (36)	−0.1 (31.8)	5.6 (42.1)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	138 (5.43)	102 (4.02)	114 (4.49)	97 (3.82)	66 (2.6)	83 (3.27)	123 (4.84)	113 (4.45)	180 (7.09)	192 (7.56)	145 (5.71)	157 (6.18)	1,510 (59.45)
Source: Meteorologisk Institutt^[69]

Climate data for Rena-Haugedalen (Köppen Dfc) (1961–1990), Norway
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Average high °C (°F)	−7.1 (19.2)	−4.4 (24.1)	2.4 (36.3)	7.8 (46)	15.2 (59.4)	20.2 (68.4)	20.9 (69.6)	18.9 (66)	13.3 (55.9)	6.6 (43.9)	−1.0 (30.2)	−5.7 (21.7)	7.26 (45.06)
Daily mean °C (°F)	−11.2 (11.8)	−9.6 (14.7)	−3.7 (25.3)	1.7 (35.1)	8.2 (46.8)	13.2 (55.8)	14.4 (57.9)	12.5 (54.5)	7.7 (45.9)	2.9 (37.2)	−4.3 (24.3)	−9.3 (15.3)	1.88 (35.38)
Average low °C (°F)	−15.6 (3.9)	−14.6 (5.7)	−9.6 (14.7)	−4.0 (24.8)	1.0 (33.8)	5.9 (42.6)	7.6 (45.7)	6.3 (43.3)	2.9 (37.2)	−0.6 (30.9)	−7.7 (18.1)	−13.4 (7.9)	−3.48 (25.72)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	50 (1.97)	38 (1.5)	40 (1.57)	42 (1.65)	62 (2.44)	78 (3.07)	90 (3.54)	79 (3.11)	85 (3.35)	80 (3.15)	67 (2.64)	55 (2.17)	766 (30.16)
Source: ^[73]

Biodiversity

The Arctic fox has its habitat in high elevation ranges on the mainland as well as on Svalbard.

The total number of species include 16,000 species of insects (probably 4,000 more species yet to be described), 20,000 species of algae, 1,800 species of lichen, 1,050 species of mosses, 2,800 species of vascular plants, up to 7,000 species of fungi, 450 species of birds (250 species nesting in Norway), 90 species of mammals, 45 fresh-water species of fish, 150 salt-water species of fish, 1,000 species of fresh-water invertebrates, and 3,500 species of salt-water invertebrates.^[74] About 40,000 of these species have been described by science. The red list of 2010 encompasses 4,599 species.^[75]

Cold-water coral reefs in Skagerak off of the southern coast of Norway.

Seventeen species are listed mainly because they are endangered on a global scale, such as the European beaver, even if the population in Norway is not seen as endangered. The number of threatened and near-threatened species equals to 3,682; it includes 418 fungi species, many of which are closely associated with the small remaining areas of old-growth forests,^[76] 36 bird species, and 16 species of mammals. In 2010, 2,398 species were listed as endangered or vulnerable; of these were 1250 listed as vulnerable (VU), 871 as endangered (EN), and 276 species as critically endangered (CR), among which were the grey wolf, the Arctic fox (healthy population on Svalbard) and the pool frog.^[75]

The largest predator in Norwegian waters is the sperm whale, and the largest fish is the basking shark. The largest predator on land is the polar bear, while the brown bear is the largest predator on the Norwegian mainland. The largest land animal on the mainland is the elk (American English: moose). The elk is in Norway known for its size and strength and is often called skogens konge, "king of the forest".

Environment

Stunning and dramatic scenery and landscape is found throughout Norway.^[77] The west coast of southern Norway and the coast of northern Norway present some of the most visually impressive coastal sceneries in the world. National Geographic has listed the Norwegian fjords as the world's top tourist attraction.^[78] The 2014 Environmental Performance Index put Norway in tenth place, based on the environmental performance of the country's policies.

A summer evening view from Sande over Lovatnet in Stryn, Sogn og Fjordane in 2013

Politics and government

Main articles: Politics of Norway and Law of Norway

The Royal Palace in Oslo.

King Harald V and Queen Sonja of Norway, reigning since 1991.

The Storting is the Parliament of Norway.

Erna Solberg, the Prime Minister of Norway since 2013.

Norway is considered to be one of the most developed democracies and states of justice in the world. From 1814, c. 45% of men (25 years and older) had the right to vote, whereas the United Kingdom had c. 20% (1832), Sweden c. 5% (1866), and Belgium c. 1.15% (1840). Since 2010, Norway has been classified as the world's most democratic country by the Democracy Index.^[79]^[80]^[81]

According to the Constitution of Norway, which was adopted on 17 May 1814^[82] and inspired by the United States Declaration of Independence and French Revolution of 1776 and 1789, respectively, Norway is a unitary constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of government, wherein the King of Norway is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government. Power is separated among the legislative, executive and judicial branches of government, as defined by the Constitution, which serves as the country's supreme legal document.

The Monarch officially retains executive power. However, following the introduction of a parliamentary system of government, the duties of the Monarch have since become strictly representative and ceremonial,^[83] such as the formal appointment and dismissal of the Prime Minister and other ministers in the executive government. Accordingly, the Monarch is commander-in-chief of the Norwegian Armed Forces, and serves as chief diplomatic official abroad and as a symbol of unity. Harald V of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg was crowned King of Norway in 1991, the first since the 14th century who has been born in the country.^[84] Haakon, Crown Prince of Norway, is the legal and rightful heir to the throne and the Kingdom.

In practice, the Prime Minister exercises the executive powers. Constitutionally, legislative power is vested with both the government and the Parliament of Norway, but the latter is the supreme legislature and a unicameral body.^[85] Norway is fundamentally structured as a representative democracy. The Parliament can pass a law by simple majority of the 169 representatives, who are elected on the basis of proportional representation from 19 constituencies for four-year terms.

150 are elected directly from the 19 constituencies, and an additional 19 seats ("levelling seats") are allocated on a nationwide basis to make the representation in parliament correspond better with the popular vote for the political parties. A 4% election threshold is required for a party to gain levelling seats in Parliament.^[86] There are a total of 169 Members of Parliament.

The Parliament of Norway, called the Stortinget (meaning Grand Assembly), ratifies national treaties developed by the executive branch. It can impeach members of the government if their acts are declared unconstitutional. If an indicted suspect is impeached, Parliament has the power to remove the person from office.

The position of Prime Minister, Norway's head of government, is allocated to the Member of Parliament who can obtain the confidence of a majority in Parliament, usually the current leader of the largest political party or, more effectively, through a coalition of parties. A single party generally does not have sufficient political power in terms of the number of seats to form a government on its own. Norway has often been ruled by minority governments.

The Prime Minister nominates the Cabinet, traditionally drawn from members of the same political party or parties in the Storting, making up the government. The PM organises the executive government and exercises its power as vested by the Constitution.^[87] Reflecting its monarchical past, Norway was established under the Lutheran Church of Norway, and was the state church until 2012. Formerly the PM had to have more than half the members of Cabinet be members of the Church of Norway, meaning at least ten out of the 19 ministries. This rule was however removed in 2012. The issue of separation of church and state in Norway has been increasingly controversial, as many people believe it is time to change this, to reflect the growing diversity in the population. A part of this is the evolution of the public school subject Christianity, a required subject since 1739. Even the state's loss in a battle at the European Court of Human Rights at Strasbourg^[88] in 2007 did not settle the matter.

Through the Council of State, a privy council presided over by the Monarch, the Prime Minister and the Cabinet meet at the Royal Palace and formally consult the Monarch. All government bills need the formal approval by the Monarch before and after introduction to Parliament. The Council reviews and approves all of the Monarch's actions as head of state. Although all government and parliamentary acts are decided beforehand, the privy council is an example of symbolic gesture the King retains.^[84]

Members of the Storting are directly elected from party-lists proportional representation in nineteen plural-member constituencies in a national multi-party system.^[89] Historically, both the Norwegian Labour Party and Conservative Party have played leading political roles. In the early 21st century, the Labour Party has been in power since the 2005 election, in a Red-Green Coalition with the Socialist Left Party and the Centre Party.^[90]

Since 2005, both the Conservative Party and the Progress Party have won numerous seats in the Parliament, but not sufficient in the 2009 general election to overthrow the coalition. Commentators have pointed to the poor co-operation between the opposition parties, including the Liberals and the Christian Democrats. Jens Stoltenberg, the leader of the Labour Party, continues to have the necessary majority through his multi-party alliance to continue as PM.^[91]

In national elections in September 2013, voters ended eight years of Labor rule. Two political parties, Høyre and Fremskrittspartiet, elected on promises of tax cuts, more spending on infrastructure and education, better services and stricter rules on immigration, formed a government. Coming at a time when Norway's economy is in good condition with low unemployment, the rise of the right appeared to be based on other issues. Erna Solberg became prime minister, the second female prime minister after Brundtland and the first conservative prime minister since Syse. Solberg said her win was "a historic election victory for the right-wing parties".^[92]

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Administrative divisions of Norway, Counties of Norway, Municipalities of Norway, List of towns and cities in Norway, and Dependencies of Norway

County (fylke)	Administrative centre	Most populous municipality	Region
Østfold	Sarpsborg	Fredrikstad	Eastern Norway
Akershus	Oslo	Bærum	Eastern Norway
Oslo	City of Oslo	Oslo	Eastern Norway
Hedmark	Hamar	Ringsaker	Eastern Norway
Oppland	Lillehammer	Gjøvik	Eastern Norway
Buskerud	Drammen	Drammen	Eastern Norway
Vestfold	Tønsberg	Sandefjord	Eastern Norway
Telemark	Skien	Skien	Eastern Norway
Aust-Agder	Arendal	Arendal	Southern Norway
Vest-Agder	Kristiansand	Kristiansand	Southern Norway
Rogaland	Stavanger	Stavanger	Western Norway
Hordaland	Bergen	Bergen	Western Norway
Sogn og Fjordane	Leikanger	Førde	Western Norway
Møre og Romsdal	Molde	Ålesund	Western Norway
Sør-Trøndelag	Trondheim	Trondheim	Trøndelag
Nord-Trøndelag	Steinkjer	Stjørdal	Trøndelag
Nordland	Bodø	Bodø	Northern Norway
Troms	Tromsø	Tromsø	Northern Norway
Finnmark	Vadsø	Alta	Northern Norway
Svalbard (unincorporated area)	Longyearbyen	Longyearbyen	Northern Norway

Judicial system and law enforcement

Main article: Judiciary of Norway

Norway uses a civil law system where laws are created and amended in Parliament and the system regulated through the Courts of justice of Norway. It consists of the Supreme Court of 19 permanent judges and a Chief Justice, appellate courts, city and district courts, and conciliation councils.^[95] The judiciary is independent of executive and legislative branches. While the Prime Minister nominates Supreme Court Justices for office, their nomination must be approved by Parliament and formally confirmed by the Monarch in the Council of State. Usually, judges attached to regular courts are formally appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister.

The Courts' strict and formal mission is to regulate the Norwegian judicial system, interpret the Constitution, and as such implement the legislation adopted by Parliament. In its judicial reviews, it monitors the legislative and executive branches to ensure that they comply with provisions of enacted legislation.^[95]

The law is enforced in Norway by the Norwegian Police Service. It is a Unified National Police Service made up of 27 Police Districts and several specialist agencies, such as Norwegian National Authority for the Investigation and Prosecution of Economic and Environmental Crime, known as Økokrim; and the National Criminal Investigation Service, each headed by a chief of police. The Police Service is headed by the National Police Directorate, which reports to the Ministry of Justice and the Police. The Police Directorate is headed by a National Police Commissioner. The only exception is the Norwegian Police Security Agency, whose head answers directly to the Ministry of Justice and the Police.

Norway abolished the death penalty for regular criminal acts in 1902. The legislature abolished the death penalty for high treason in war and war-crimes in 1979. Reporters Without Borders, in its 2007 Worldwide Press Freedom Index, ranked Norway at a shared first place (along with Iceland) out of 169 countries.^[96]

In general, the legal and institutional framework in Norway is characterised by a high degree of transparency, accountability and integrity, and the perception and the occurrence of corruption are very low.^[97] Norway has ratified all relevant international anti-corruption conventions, and its standards of implementation and enforcement of anti-corruption legislation are considered very high by many international anti-corruption working groups such as the OECD Anti-Bribery Working Group. However, there are some isolated cases showing that some municipalities have abused their position in public procurement processes.

Norwegian prisons are humane rather than tough with emphasis on rehabilitation. At 20% Norway's reconviction rate is among the lowest in the world.^[98]

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Norway

Royal Norwegian Navy Fridtjof Nansen class frigate

Norway maintains embassies in 86 countries.^[99] 60 countries maintain an embassy in Norway, all of them in the capital, Oslo.

Norway is a founding member of the United Nations (UN), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Council of Europe and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Norway issued applications for accession to the European Union (EU) and its predecessors in 1962, 1967 and 1992, respectively. While Denmark, Sweden and Finland obtained membership, the Norwegian electorate rejected the treaties of accession in referenda in 1972 and 1994.

After the 1994 referendum, Norway maintained its membership in the European Economic Area (EEA), an arrangement granting the country access to the internal market of the Union, on the condition that Norway implements the Union's pieces of legislation which are deemed relevant (of which there were approximately seven thousand by 2010)^[100] Successive Norwegian governments have, since 1994, requested participation in parts of the EU's co-operation that go beyond the provisions of the EEA agreement. Non-voting participation by Norway has been granted in, for instance, the Union's Common Security and Defence Policy, the Schengen Agreement, and the European Defence Agency, as well as 19 separate programmes.^[101]

Norway contributes to international development. In addition, it participated in the 1990s brokering of the Oslo Accords, an attempt to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. These were unsuccessful.

Military

Main article: Norwegian Armed Forces

Norwegian Leopard tanks in the snow in Målselv

The Norwegian Armed Forces numbers about 25,000 personnel, including civilian employees. According to 2009 mobilisation plans, full mobilisation produces approximately 83,000 combatant personnel. Norway has conscription (including 6–12 months of training);^[102] in 2013, the country became the first in Europe and NATO to draft women as well as men. However, due to less need for conscripts after the Cold War ended with the break-up of the Soviet Union, few people have to serve if they are not motivated.^[103] The Armed Forces are subordinate to the Norwegian Ministry of Defence. The Commander-in-Chief is King Harald V. The military of Norway is divided into the following branches: the Norwegian Army, the Royal Norwegian Navy, the Royal Norwegian Air Force, the Norwegian Cyber Force and the Home Guard.

In response to its being overrun by Germany in 1940, the country was one of the founding nations of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on 4 April 1949. At present, Norway contributes in the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan.^[104] Additionally, Norway has contributed in several missions in contexts of the United Nations, NATO, and the Common Security and Defence Policy of the European Union.

Health

Main article: Health in Norway

Norway was awarded first place according to the UN's Human Development Index (HDI) for 2013.^[105] Poverty and communicable diseases dominated in Norway together with famines, and epidemics in the 1800s. From the 1900s improvements in public health occurred as a result of development in several areas such as social and living conditions, changes in disease and medical outbreaks, establishment of the health care system and emphasis on public health matters. Vaccination and increased treatment opportunities with antibiotics resulted in great improvements within the Norwegian population. Improved hygiene and better nutrition were factors that contributed to improved health.

The disease pattern in Norway changed from communicable diseases to non-communicable diseases and chronic diseases as cardiovascular disease. Inequalities and social differences are still present in public health in Norway today.^[106]

In 2013 the infant mortality rate was 2.5 per 1 000 live births among children under the age of one. For girls it was 2.7 and for boys 2.3, which is the lowest infant mortality rate for boys ever recorded in Norway.^[107]

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Norway, Energy in Norway, European Economic Area, and Exclusive economic zone § Norway

Graphical depiction of Norway's product exports in 28 colour-coded categories.

GDP and GDP growth

Norwegians enjoy the second-highest GDP per-capita among European countries (after Luxembourg), and the sixth-highest GDP (PPP) per-capita in the world. Today, Norway ranks as the second-wealthiest country in the world in monetary value, with the largest capital reserve per capita of any nation.^[108] According to the CIA World Factbook, Norway is a net external creditor of debt.^[64] Norway maintained first place in the world in the UNDP Human Development Index (HDI) for six consecutive years (2001–2006),^[13] and then reclaimed this position in 2009, through 2015.^[23] The standard of living in Norway is among the highest in the world. Foreign Policy Magazine ranks Norway last in its Failed States Index for 2009, judging Norway to be the world's most well-functioning and stable country. The OECD ranks Norway fourth in the 2013 equalised Better Life Index and third in intergenerational earnings elasticity.^[109]^[110]

Norway's exclusive economic zones

The Norwegian economy is an example of a mixed economy, a prosperous capitalist welfare state and social democracy country featuring a combination of free market activity and large state ownership in certain key sectors. Public health care in Norway is free (after an annual charge of around $230 for those over 16), and parents have 46 weeks paid^[111] parental leave. The state income derived from natural resources includes a significant contribution from petroleum production. Norway has a very low unemployment rate, currently 2.6%.^[112] 69% of the population aged 15–74 are employed.^[113] People in the labour force are either employed or looking for work.^[114] 9.5% of the population aged 18–66 receive a disability pension^[115] and 30% of the labour force are employed by the government, the highest in the OECD.^[116] The hourly productivity levels, as well as average hourly wages in Norway, are among the highest in the world.^[117]^[118]

The egalitarian values of Norwegian society have kept the wage difference between the lowest paid worker and the CEO of most companies as much less than in comparable western economies.^[119] This is also evident in Norway's low Gini coefficient.

The state has large ownership positions in key industrial sectors, such as the strategic petroleum sector (Statoil), hydroelectric energy production (Statkraft), aluminium production (Norsk Hydro), the largest Norwegian bank (DNB), and telecommunication provider (Telenor). Through these big companies, the government controls approximately 30% of the stock values at the Oslo Stock Exchange. When non-listed companies are included, the state has even higher share in ownership (mainly from direct oil licence ownership). Norway is a major shipping nation and has the world's 6th largest merchant fleet, with 1,412 Norwegian-owned merchant vessels.

By referendums in 1972 and 1994, Norwegians rejected proposals to join the European Union (EU). However, Norway, together with Iceland and Liechtenstein, participates in the European Union's single market through the European Economic Area (EEA) agreement. The EEA Treaty between the European Union countries and the EFTA countries– transposed into Norwegian law via "EØS-loven"^[120]– describes the procedures for implementing European Union rules in Norway and the other EFTA countries. Norway is a highly integrated member of most sectors of the EU internal market. Some sectors, such as agriculture, oil and fish, are not wholly covered by the EEA Treaty. Norway has also acceded to the Schengen Agreement and several other intergovernmental agreements among the EU member states.

The country is richly endowed with natural resources including petroleum, hydropower, fish, forests, and minerals. Large reserves of petroleum and natural gas were discovered in the 1960s, which led to a boom in the economy. Norway has obtained one of the highest standards of living in the world in part by having a large amount of natural resources compared to the size of the population. In 2011, 28% of state revenues were generated from the petroleum industry.^[121]

Norway is the first country which banned cutting of trees (deforestation), in order to prevent rain forests from vanishing. The country declared its intention at the UN Climate Summit in 2014, alongside Great Britain and Germany. Crops, that are typically linked to forests' destruction are timber, soy, palm oil and beef. Now Norway has to find new way to provide these essential products without exerting negative influence on its environment.^[122]

Resources

Agriculture is a significant sector, in spite of the mountainous landscape (Flakstad)

Oil production has been central to the Norwegian economy since the 1970s, with a dominating state ownership (Statfjord oil field)

Stockfish has been exported from Lofoten in Norway for at least 1,000 years

Export revenues from oil and gas have risen to almost 50% of total exports and constitute more than 20% of the GDP.^[123] Norway is the fifth-largest oil exporter and third-largest gas exporter in the world, but it is not a member of OPEC. In 1995 the Norwegian government established the sovereign wealth fund ("Government Pension Fund — Global"), which would be funded with oil revenues, including taxes, dividends, sales revenues and licensing fees. This was intended to reduce overheating in the economy from oil revenues, minimise uncertainty from volatility in oil price, and provide a cushion to compensate for expenses associated with the ageing of the population.

The government controls its petroleum resources through a combination of state ownership in major operators in the oil fields (with approximately 62% ownership in Statoil in 2007) and the fully state-owned Petoro, which has a market value of about twice Statoil, and SDFI. Finally, the government controls licensing of exploration and production of fields. The fund invests in developed financial markets outside Norway. The budgetary rule (Handlingsregelen) is to spend no more than 4% of the fund each year (assumed to be the normal yield from the fund).

In August 2014, the Government Pension Fund controlled assets were valued at approximately US$884 billion (equal to US$173,000 per capita) which is about 174% of Norway's current GDP. It is the largest sovereign wealth fund in the world.^[124] The fund controls about 1.3% of all listed shares in Europe and more than 1% of all the publicly traded shares in the world. The Norwegian Central Bank operates investment offices in London, New York and Shanghai. Guidelines implemented in 2007 allow the fund to invest up to 60% of the capital in shares (maximum of 40% prior), while the rest may be placed in bonds and real-estate. As the stock markets tumbled in September 2008, the fund was able to buy more shares at low prices. In this way, the losses incurred by the market turmoil was recuperated by November 2009.

Other nations with economies based on natural resources, such as Russia, are trying to learn from Norway by establishing similar funds. The investment choices of the Norwegian fund are directed by ethical guidelines; for example, the fund is not allowed to invest in companies that produce parts for nuclear weapons. Norway's highly transparent investment scheme is lauded by the international community. The future size of the fund is closely linked to the price of oil and to developments in international financial markets.

In 2000, the government sold one-third of the state-owned oil company Statoil in an IPO. The next year, the main telecom supplier, Telenor, was listed on Oslo Stock Exchange. The state also owns significant shares of Norway's largest bank, DnB NOR and the airline SAS. Since 2000, economic growth has been rapid, pushing unemployment down to levels not seen since the early 1980s (unemployment in 2007: 1.3%). The international financial crisis has primarily affected the industrial sector, but unemployment has remained low and was at 3.3% (86,000 people) in August 2011. In contrast to Norway, Sweden had substantially higher actual and projected unemployment numbers as a result of the recession. Thousands of mainly young Swedes migrated to Norway for work during these years, which is easy as the labour market and social security systems overlap in the Nordic Countries. In the 1st quarter of 2009, the GNP of Norway surpassed Sweden's for the first time in history, although its population is half the size.

Norway contains significant mineral resources and in 2013 its mineral production was valued at US$1.5 billion (Norwegian Geological Survey data). The most valuable minerals are calcium carbonate (limestone), building stone, nepheline syenite, olivine, iron, titanium, and nickel.^[125]

Norway is also the world's 2nd-largest exporter of fish (in value, after China).^[126]^[127] Hydroelectric plants generate roughly 98–99% of Norway's electric power, more than any other country in the world.^[128]

Oil fields

External image
Decreasing oil production

Between 1966 and 2013, Norwegian companies drilled 5085 oil wells, mostly in the North Sea.^[129] 3672 are utviklingsbrønner (regular production);^[129] 1413 are letebrønner (exploration); and 1405 of these have been terminated (avsluttet).^[129]

Oil fields not yet in production phase include: Wisting Central—calculated size in 2013, 65–156 million barrels of oil and 10 to 40 billion cubic feet (0.28 to 1.13 billion cubic metres), (utvinnbar) of gas.^[130] and the Castberg Oil Field (Castberg-feltet^[130])—calculated size 540 million barrels of oil, and 2 to 7 billion cubic feet (57 to 198 million cubic metres) (utvinnbar) of gas.^[131] Both oil fields are located in the Barents Sea.

Transport

Main articles: Transport in Norway, Rail transport in Norway, and List of airports in Norway

Due to the low population density, narrow shape and long coastlines of Norway, its public transport is less developed than in many European countries, especially outside the major cities. The country has longstanding water transport traditions, but the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications has in recent years implemented rail, road and air transport through numerous subsidiaries to develop the country's infrastructure.^[132] Under discussion is development of a new high-speed rail system between the nation's largest cities.^[133]^[134]

E6 highway at Brattlikollen outskirts of Oslo

Norway's main railway network consists of 4,114 kilometres (2,556 mi) of standard gauge lines, of which 242 kilometres (150 mi) is double track and 64 kilometres (40 mi) high-speed rail (210 km/h) while 62% is electrified at 15 kV 16 ²⁄₃ Hz AC. The railways transported 56,827,000 passengers 2,956 million passenger-kilometres and 24,783,000 tonnes of cargo 3,414 million tonne-kilometres.^[135] The entire network is owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration.^[136] All domestic passenger trains except the Airport Express Train are operated by Norges Statsbaner (NSB).^[137] Several companies operate freight trains.^[138] Investment in new infrastructure and maintenance is financed through the state budget,^[136] and subsidies are provided for passenger train operations.^[139] NSB operates long-haul trains, including night trains, regional services and four commuter train systems, around Oslo, Trondheim, Bergen and Stavanger.^[140]

Norwegian Air Shuttle and Scandinavian Airlines aircraft at Oslo Airport, Gardermoen. Shows the startup of the expansion and renovation set to complete in 2017.^{[visualisation]}

Norway has approximately 92,946 kilometres (57,754 mi) of road network, of which 72,033 kilometres (44,759 mi) are paved and 664 kilometres (413 mi) are motorway.^[64] The four tiers of road routes are national, county, municipal and private, with national and primary county roads numbered en route. The most important national routes are part of the European route scheme. The two most prominent are the E6 going north-south through the entire country, and the E39, which follows the West Coast. National and county roads are managed by the Norwegian Public Roads Administration.^[141]

Norway has the world's largest registered stock of plug-in electric vehicles per capita, with Oslo recognised as the EV capital of the world.^[142]^[143]^[144] In March 2014, Norway became the first country where over 1 in every 100 passenger cars on the roads is a plug-in electric.^[145] The plug-in electric segment market share of new car sales is also the highest in the world.^[146] According to a report by Dagens Næringsliv in June 2016, the country would like to ban all gasoline and diesel powered vehicles as early as 2025.^[147]

Of the 97 airports in Norway,^[64] 52 are public,^[148] and 46 are operated by the state-owned Avinor.^[149] Seven airports have more than one million passengers annually.^[148] 41,089,675 passengers passed through Norwegian airports in 2007, of which 13,397,458 were international.^[148]

The central gateway to Norway by air is Oslo Airport, Gardermoen.^[148] Located about 35 kilometres (22 mi) northeast of Oslo, it is hub for the two major Norwegian airlines: Scandinavian Airlines^[150] and Norwegian Air Shuttle,^[151] and for regional aircraft from Western Norway.^[152] There are departures to most European countries and some intercontinental destinations.^[153]^[154] A direct high-speed train connects to Oslo Central Station every 10 minutes for a 20 min ride.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Norway

Ethnic woman in Norwegian local geographic environment at Voss near Gudvangen in 1959

Demographics in Norway

Historical population
Year	Pop.	±% p.a.
1500	140,000	—
1665	440,000	+0.70%
1735	616,109	+0.48%
1801	883,603	+0.55%
1855	1,490,047	+0.97%
1900	2,240,032	+0.91%
1950	3,278,546	+0.76%
2000	4,478,497	+0.63%
2010	4,858,199	+0.82%
2013	5,096,300	+1.61%
2060 (projected)	7,032,687	+0.69%
Source: Statistics Norway.^[155]^[156]

Norway's population was 5,096,300 people in October 2013. Norwegians are an ethnic North Germanic people. Since the late 20th century, Norway has attracted many immigrants from southern and central Europe, the Mideast, Africa and Asia. All of these groups speak many different languages and come from different cultures and religions.

In 2012, an official study showed that 86%^[157] of the total population have at least one parent who was born in Norway. More than 710,000 individuals (14%)^[158] are immigrants and their descendants; there are 117,000 children of immigrants, born in Norway.

Of these 710,000 immigrants and their descendants:

323,000 (39%)^[158] have a Western background (Australia, North America, elsewhere in Europe)
505,000 (61%)^[158] have a non-Western background (primarily Morocco, Iraq, Somalia, Pakistan, Iran).

In 2013, the Norwegian government said that 14% of the Norwegian population were immigrants or children of two immigrant parents. About 6% of the immigrant population come from EU, North America and Australia, and about 8.1% come from Asia, Africa and Latin America.^[159]

In 2012, of the total 660,000 with immigrant background, 407,262 had Norwegian citizenship (62.2%).^[160]

Immigrants have settled in all Norwegian municipalities. The cities or municipalities with the highest share of immigrants in 2012 were Oslo (32%) and Drammen (27%).^[161] The share in Stavanger was 16%.^[161] According to Reuters, Oslo is the "fastest growing city in Europe because of increased immigration".^[162] In recent years, immigration has accounted for most of Norway's population growth. In 2011 16% of newborn children were of immigrant background.

The Sami people are indigenous to the Far North and have traditionally inhabited central and northern parts of Norway and Sweden, as well as areas in northern Finland and in Russia on the Kola Peninsula. Another national minority are the Kven people, descendants of Finnish-speaking people who migrated to northern Norway from the 18th up to the 20th century. From the 19th century up to the 1970s, the Norwegian government tried to assimilate both the Sami and the Kven, encouraging them to adopt the majority language, culture and religion.^[163] Because of this "Norwegianization process", many families of Sami or Kven ancestry now identify as ethnic Norwegian.^[164]

Migration

Minneapolis–Saint Paul has the largest concentration of ethnic Norwegians outside Norway, at 470,000.

Emigration

Main articles: Norwegian diaspora and Norwegian Americans

Particularly in the 19th century, when economic conditions were difficult in Norway, tens of thousands of people migrated to the United States and Canada, where they could work and buy land in frontier areas. Many went to the Midwest and Pacific Northwest. In 2006, according to the US Census Bureau, almost 4.7 million persons identified as Norwegian Americans, which was larger than the population of ethnic Norwegians in Norway itself. In the 2011 Canadian census, 452,705 Canadian citizens identified as having Norwegian ancestry.^[165]

Immigration

Main article: Immigration to Norway

On 1 January 2013, the number of immigrants or children of two immigrants residing in Norway was 710,465, or 14.1% of the total population,^[159] up from 183,000 in 1992. Yearly immigration has increased since 2005. While yearly net immigration in 2001–5 was on average 13,613, it increased to 37,541 between 2006 and 2010, and in 2011 net immigration reached 47,032.^[166] This is mostly because of increased immigration by residents of the EU, in particular from Poland.^[167]

In 2012, the immigrant community (which includes immigrants and children born in Norway of immigrant parents) grew by 55,300, a record high.^[159] Net immigration from abroad reached 47,300 (300 higher than in 2011), while immigration accounted for 72% of Norway's population growth.^[168] 17% of newborn children were born to immigrant parents.^[159] Children of Pakistani, Somali and Vietnamese parents made up the largest groups of all Norwegians born to immigrant parents.^[169]

Pakistani Norwegians are the largest non-European minority group in Norway. Most of their 32,700 members live in and around Oslo. The Iraqi and Somali immigrant populations have increased significantly in recent years. After the enlargement of the EU in 2004, a wave of immigrants has arrived from Central and Northern Europe, particularly Poland, Sweden and Lithuania. The fastest growing immigrant groups in 2011 in absolute numbers were from Poland, Lithuania and Sweden.^[170] The policies of immigration and integration have been the subject of much debate in Norway.

Largest immigrant groups (1st and 2nd generation):^[171]

National background	Population
Poland	91,179
Sweden	38,414
Somalia	35,912
Lithuania	35,546
Pakistan	34,447
Iraq	30,144
Germany	26,683
Vietnam	21,721
Denmark	20,897
Philippines	19,886

Religion

Main article: Religion in Norway

Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim

Heddal stave church, Notodden, the largest stave church in Norway

Bait-un-Nasr mosque on the outskirts of Oslo, the largest mosque in Scandinavia^[172]

Most Norwegians are registered at baptism as members of the Church of Norway which is the official state religion. The constitution still requires that the reigning monarch must be Lutheran and that the country's values are based on its Christian and humanist heritage. Many remain in the church to participate in the community and practices such as baptism, confirmation, marriage and burial rites. About 74.3% of Norwegians were members of the Church of Norway in 2015. In 2014, about 59.3% of all newborns were baptised and about 62.9% of all 15-year-old persons were confirmed in the church.^[173]

In the early 1990s, studies estimated that between 4.7% and 5.3% of Norwegians attended church on a weekly basis.^[174] This figure has dropped to about 2%.^[175]^[176]

In 2010, 10% of the population was religiously unaffiliated, while another 9%, were members of religious communities outside the Church of Norway.^[177] Other Christian denominations total about 4.9%^[177] of the population, the largest of which is the Roman Catholic Church, with 83,000 members, according to 2009 government statistics.^[178] An article in the newspaper Aftenposten in October 2012 noted there were about 115,234 registered Roman Catholics in Norway; the reporter estimated that the total number of people with a Roman Catholic background may be 170,000–200,000 or higher.^[179]

Others include Pentecostals (39,600),^[178] the Evangelical Lutheran Free Church of Norway (19,600),^[178] Methodists (11,000),^[178] Baptists (9,900),^[178] Eastern Orthodox (9,900),^[178] Brunstad Christian Church (6,800),^[178] Seventh-day Adventists (5,100),^[178] Assyrians and Chaldeans, and others. The Swedish, Finnish and Icelandic Lutheran congregations in Norway have about 27,500 members in total.^[178] Other Christian denominations comprise less than 1% each, including 4,000 members in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and 12,000 Jehovah's Witnesses.^[178]

Among non-Christian religions, Islam is the largest, with 132,135 registered members (2014), and probably fewer than 200,000 in total.^[180] It is practised mainly by Somali, Arab, Bosniak, Albanian and Turkish immigrants, as well as Norwegians of Pakistani descent.

Other religions comprise less than 1% each, including 819 adherents of Judaism.^[181] Indian immigrants introduced Hinduism to Norway, which in 2011 has slightly more than 5,900 adherents, or 1% of non-Lutheran Norwegians.^[181] Sikhism has approximately 3,000 adherents, with most living in Oslo, which has two gurdwaras. Sikhs first came to Norway in the early 1970s. The troubles in Punjab after Operation Blue Star and riots committed against Sikhs in India after the assassination of Indira Gandhi led to an increase in Sikh refugees moving to Norway. Drammen also has a sizeable population of Sikhs; the largest gurdwara in north Europe was built in Lier. There are eleven Buddhist organisations, grouped under the Buddhistforbundet organisation, with slightly over 14,000 members,^[181] which make up 0.2% of the population. The Baha'i religion has slightly more than 1,000 adherents.^[181] Around 1.7% (84,500) of Norwegians belong to the secular Norwegian Humanist Association.

From 2006 to 2011, the fastest-growing religious faith in Norway was Orthodox Christianity, which grew in membership by 80%; however, its share of the total population remains small, at 0.2%. It is associated with the huge immigration from Eritrea and Ethiopia, and to a lesser extent from Central and Eastern European and Middle Eastern countries. Other fast-growing religions were the Roman Catholic Church (78.7%), Hinduism (59.6%), Islam (48.1%), and Buddhism (46.7%).^[182]

As in other Scandinavian countries, the ancient Norse followed a form of native Germanic paganism known as Norse paganism. By the end of the 11th century, when Norway had been Christianised, the indigenous Norse religion and practices were prohibited. Remnants of the native religion and beliefs of Norway survive today in the form of names, referential names of cities and locations, the days of the week, and other parts of everyday language. Modern interest in the old ways has led to a revival of pagan religious practices in the form of Åsatru. The Norwegian Åsatrufellesskapet Bifrost formed in 1996; in 2011, the fellowship had about 300 members. Foreningen Forn Sed was formed in 1999 and has been recognised by the Norwegian government.

The Sami minority retained their shamanistic religion well into the 18th century, when most converted to Christianity under the influence of Dano-Norwegian Lutheran missionaries. Some retained their ancient religion. Today there is a renewed appreciation for the Sami traditional way of life, which has led to a revival of Noaidevuohta.^[183] Some Norwegian and Sami celebrities are reported to visit shamans for guidance.^[184]^[185]

According to the Eurobarometer Poll 2010, 22% of Norwegian citizens responded that "they believe there is a god".^[186] A study conducted three years previously by Gustafsson and Pettersson (2002), similarly found that 72% of Norwegians did not believe in a 'personal God.'^[187]

Largest cities of Norway

Largest cities or towns in Norway According to Statistics Norway
	Rank	Name	County	Pop.	Rank	Name	County	Pop.
Oslo Bergen	1	Oslo	Oslo	925,228	11	Moss	Østfold	44,449	Stavanger/Sandnes Trondheim
	2	Bergen	Hordaland	247,731	12	Sandefjord	Vestfold	41,934
	3	Stavanger/Sandnes	Rogaland	203,771	13	Arendal	Aust-Agder	40,703
	4	Trondheim	Sør-Trøndelag	169,972	14	Haugesund	Rogaland	40,152
	5	Drammen	Buskerud	110,503	15	Bodø	Nordland	38,973
	6	Fredrikstad/Sarpsborg	Østfold	106,758	16	Tromsø	Troms	32,774
	7	Porsgrunn/Skien	Telemark	90,621	17	Hamar	Hedmark	26,004
	8	Kristiansand	Vest-Agder	58,662	18	Halden	Østfold	24,410
	9	Tønsberg	Vestfold	49,735	19	Larvik	Vestfold	23,523
	10	Ålesund	Møre og Romsdal	49,528	20	Askøy	Hordaland	21,438

Education

Main article: Education in Norway

The main building of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim

Higher education in Norway is offered by a range of seven universities, five specialised colleges, 25 university colleges as well as a range of private colleges. Education follows the Bologna Process involving Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years) and PhD (3 years) degrees.^[188] Acceptance is offered after finishing upper secondary school with general study competence.

Public education is virtually free, regardless of nationality.^[189] The academic year has two semesters, from August to December and from January to June. The ultimate responsibility for the education lies with the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research.

Languages

Main article: Languages of Norway

See also: Norwegian language and Sami languages

Distribution of Norwegian dialect groups: North Norwegian (yellow), Trøndelag Norwegian (navy blue), West Norwegian (orange) and East Norwegian (pale blue).

The North Germanic Norwegian language has two official written forms, Bokmål and Nynorsk. Both of them are recognised as official languages, and both are used in public administration, schools, churches, and media. Bokmål is the written language used by a large majority of about 80–85%. An alternative to Bokmål, Riksmål, is slightly more similar to Danish. Around 95% of the population speak Norwegian as their first or native language, although many speak dialects that may differ significantly from the written languages. All Norwegian dialects are mutually intelligible, although listeners with limited exposure to dialects other than their own may struggle to understand certain phrases and pronunciations in some other dialects.

Several Uralic Sami languages are spoken and written throughout the country, especially in the north, by some members of the Sami people. (Estimates suggest that about one third of the Norwegian Sami speak a Sami language.^[190]) Speakers have a right to be educated and to receive communication from the government in their own language in a special forvaltningsområde (administrative area) for Sami languages.^[191]^[192] The Kven minority historically spoke the Uralic Kven language (considered a separate language in Norway, but generally perceived as a Finnish dialect in Finland). Today the majority of ethnic Kven have little or no knowledge of the language. According to the Kainun institutti, "The typical modern Kven is a Norwegian-speaking Norwegian who knows his genealogy."^[193] As Norway has ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML) the Kven language together with Romani and Scandoromani language has become officially recognised minority languages.^[194]^[195]

Some supporters have also advocated making Norwegian Sign Language an official language of the country.^[196]^[197]

In the 19th and 20th centuries, the Norwegian language was subject to strong political and cultural controversies. This led to the development of Nynorsk in the 19th century and to the formation of alternative spelling standards in the 20th century.

Norwegian is similar to the other languages in Scandinavia: Swedish and Danish. All three languages are to a degree, mutually intelligible and can be, and commonly are, employed in communication among inhabitants of the Scandinavian countries. As a result of the co-operation within the Nordic Council, inhabitants of all Nordic countries, including Iceland and Finland, have the right to communicate with Norwegian authorities in their own language.

Students who are children of immigrant parents are encouraged to learn the Norwegian language. The Norwegian government offers language instructional courses for immigrants wishing to obtain Norwegian citizenship. With increasing concern about assimilating immigrants, since 1 September 2008, the government has required that an applicant for Norwegian citizenship give evidence of proficiency in either Norwegian or in one of the Sami languages, or give proof of having attended classes in Norwegian for 300 hours, or meet the language requirements for university studies in Norway (that is, by being proficient in one of the Scandinavian languages).

The primary foreign language taught in Norwegian schools is English, considered an international language since the post-WWII era. The majority of the population is fairly fluent in English, especially those born after World War II. German, French and Spanish are also commonly taught as second or, more often, third languages. Russian, Japanese, Italian, Latin, and rarely Chinese (Mandarin) are offered in some schools, mostly in the cities. Traditionally, English, German and French were considered the main foreign languages in Norway. These languages, for instance, were used on Norwegian passports until the 1990s, and university students have a general right to use these languages when submitting their theses.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Norway

Bryggen in Bergen is on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites

The Norwegian farm culture continues to play a role in contemporary Norwegian culture. In the 19th century, it inspired a strong romantic nationalistic movement, which is still visible in the Norwegian language and media. Norwegian culture blossomed with nationalist efforts to achieve an independent identity in the areas of literature, art and music. This continues today in the performing arts and as a result of government support for exhibitions, cultural projects and artwork.^[198]

Traditional Norwegian farmer's costumes, known as folkedrakt, and modern costumes inspired by those costumes, known as bunad, are widely used on special occasions.

Human rights

Norway has been a progressive country, which has adopted legislation and policies to support women's rights, minority rights, and LGBT rights. As early as 1884, 171 of the leading figures, among them five Prime Ministers for the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party, co-founded the Norwegian Association for Women's Rights.^[199] They successfully campaigned for women's right to education, women's suffrage, the right to work and other gender equality policies. From the 1970s, gender equality also came high on the state agenda with the establishment of a public body to promote gender equality, which evolved into the Gender Equality and Anti-Discrimination Ombud. Civil society organisations also continue to play an important role, and the women's rights organisations are today organised in the Norwegian Women's Lobby umbrella organisation.

In 1990 the Norwegian constitution was amended to grant absolute primogeniture to the Norwegian throne, meaning that the eldest child, regardless of gender, takes precedence in the line of succession. As it was not retroactive, the current successor to the throne is the eldest son of the King, rather than his eldest child. The Norwegian constitution Article 6 states that "For those born before the year 1990 it shall...be the case that a male shall take precedence over a female."^[200]

The Sami people have for centuries been the subject of discrimination and abuse by the dominant cultures in Scandinavia and Russia, those countries claiming possession of Sami lands.^[201] The Sami people have never been a single community in a single region of Lapland.^[202] Norway has been greatly criticised by the international community for the politics of Norwegianization of and discrimination against the indigenous population of the country.^[203] Nevertheless, Norway was, in 1990, the first country to recognise ILO-convention 169 on indigenous people recommended by the UN.

In regard to LGBT rights, Norway was the first country in the world to enact an anti-discrimination law protecting the rights of gays and lesbians. In 1993 Norway became the second country to legalise civil union partnerships for same-sex couples, and on 1 January 2009 Norway became the sixth country to grant full marriage equality to same-sex couples. As a promoter of human rights, Norway has held the annual Oslo Freedom Forum conference, a gathering described by The Economist as "on its way to becoming a human-rights equivalent of the Davos economic forum."^[204]

Religion

Separation of church and state happened significantly later in Norway than in most of Europe and is not yet complete. In 2012, the Norwegian parliament voted to grant the Church of Norway greater autonomy,^[205] a decision which was confirmed in a constitutional amendment on 21 May 2012. Until 2012 parliamentary officials were required to be members of the Lutheran Church and at least half of all ministers had to be a member of the Christian State Church. As the Church of Norway is the state church, its clergy are state employees, and the central and regional church administrations are part of the state administration. The members of the Royal family are required to be members of the Lutheran church.

Cinema

Main article: Cinema of Norway

The Norwegian cinema has received international recognition. The documentary film Kon-Tiki (1950) of the expedition won an American Oscar Academy Award. In 1959, Arne Skouen's Nine Lives was nominated, but failed to win. Another notable film is Flåklypa Grand Prix (English: Pinchcliffe Grand Prix), an animated feature film directed by Ivo Caprino. The film was released in 1975 and is based on characters from Norwegian cartoonist Kjell Aukrust. It is the most widely seen Norwegian film of all time.

Nils Gaup's Pathfinder (1987), the story of the Sami, was nominated for an Oscar. Berit Nesheim's The Other Side of Sunday was nominated for an Oscar in 1997.

Since the 1990s, the film industry has thrived, producing up to 20 feature films each year. Particular successes were Kristin Lavransdatter, based on a novel by a Nobel Prize winner; The Telegraphist and Gurin with the Foxtail. Knut Erik Jensen was among the more successful new directors, together with Erik Skjoldbjærg, who is remembered for Insomnia.^[206]

The country has also been used as filming location for several Hollywood and other international productions, including The Empire Strikes Back (1980), for which the producers used Hardangerjøkulen glacier as a filming location for scenes of the ice planet Hoth. It included a memorable battle in the snow. The films Die Another Day, The Golden Compass, Spies Like Us and Heroes of Telemark, as well as the TV series Lilyhammer and Vikings also had scenes set in Norway.^[207] A short film, The Spirit of Norway was featured at Maelstrom at Norway Pavilion at Epcot located within Walt Disney World Resort in Florida in the United States. The attraction and the film ceased their operations on 5 October 2014.

Music

Main article: Music of Norway

Edvard Grieg, composer and pianist

The classical music of the romantic composers Edvard Grieg, Rikard Nordraak and Johan Svendsen is internationally known as is the modern music of Arne Nordheim. Norway's classical performers include Leif Ove Andsnes, one of the world's more famous pianists; Truls Mørk, an outstanding cellist; and the great Wagnerian soprano Kirsten Flagstad.

Norwegian black metal has been an influence in world music since the late 20th century. Since the 1990s, Norway's export of black metal, a lo-fi, dark and raw form of heavy metal, has been developed by such bands as Emperor, Darkthrone, Gorgoroth, Mayhem, Burzum, and Immortal. More recently bands such as Enslaved, Kvelertak, Dimmu Borgir and Satyricon have evolved the genre into the present day while still garnering worldwide fans. Controversial events associated with the black metal movement in the early 1990s included several church burnings and two prominent murder cases.

The jazz scene in Norway is thriving. Jan Garbarek, Terje Rypdal, Mari Boine, Arild Andersen, and Bugge Wesseltoft are internationally recognised while Paal Nilssen-Love, Supersilent, Jaga Jazzist and Wibutee are becoming world-class artists of the younger generation.^[208]

Hardingfele, the "Hardanger fiddle", a Norwegian instrument

Norway has a strong folk music tradition which remains popular to this day.^[209] Among the most prominent folk musicians are Hardanger fiddlers Andrea Een, Olav Jørgen Hegge and Annbjørg Lien, and the vocalists Agnes Buen Garnås, Kirsten Bråten Berg and Odd Nordstoga.

Other internationally recognised bands are A-ha, Röyksopp, Ylvis and Maria Mena.^[210] A-ha initially rose to global fame during the mid-1980s. In the 1990s and 2000s the group maintained its popularity domestically, and has remained successful outside Norway, especially in Germany, Switzerland, France and Brazil.

In recent years, various Norwegian songwriters and production teams have contributed to the music of other international artists. The Norwegian production team Stargate has produced songs for Rihanna, Beyoncé, Shakira, Jennifer Lopez and Lionel Richie, among others. Espen Lind has written and produced songs for Beyoncé, Lionel Richie and Leona Lewis, among others. Lene Marlin has written songs for Rihanna and Lovebugs.

Norway enjoys many music festivals throughout the year, all over the country. Norway is the host of one of the world's biggest extreme sport festivals with music, Ekstremsportveko—a festival held annually in Voss. Oslo is the host of many festivals, such as Øyafestivalen and by:Larm. Oslo used to have a summer parade similar to the German Love Parade. In 1992 the city of Oslo wanted to adopt the French music festival Fête de la Musique. Fredrik Carl Størmer established the festival. Even in its first year, "Musikkens Dag" gathered thousands of people and artists in the streets of Oslo. "Musikkens Dag" is now renamed Musikkfest Oslo.

Literature

Main article: Norwegian literature

Research

Internationally recognised Norwegian scientists include the mathematicians Niels Henrik Abel, Sophus Lie and Atle Selberg, physical chemist Lars Onsager, physicist Ivar Giaever, chemists Odd Hassel, Peter Waage, and Cato Maximilian Guldberg.

In the 20th century, Norwegian academics have been pioneering in many social sciences, including criminology, sociology and peace and conflict studies. Prominent academics include Arne Næss, a philosopher and founder of deep ecology; Johan Galtung, the founder of peace studies; Nils Christie and Thomas Mathiesen, criminologists; Fredrik Barth, a social anthropologist; Vilhelm Aubert, Harriet Holter and Erik Grønseth, sociologists; Tove Stang Dahl, a pioneer of women's law; Stein Rokkan, a political scientist; and economists Ragnar Frisch, Trygve Haavelmo, and Finn E. Kydland.

In 2014, the two Norwegian scientists May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with John O'Keefe. They won the prize for their groundbreaking work identifying the cells that make up a positioning system in the human brain, our "in-built GPS".^[211]

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of Norway

The Urnes Stave Church has been listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.

With expansive forests, Norway has long had a tradition of building in wood. Many of today's most interesting new buildings are made of wood, reflecting the strong appeal that this material continues to hold for Norwegian designers and builders.^[212]

Dalen Hotel in Telemark built in dragestil ("Dragon Style"), a style of design and architecture that originated during the period of Norwegian romantic nationalism.

With Norway's conversion to Christianity some 1,000 years ago, churches were built. Stonework architecture was introduced from Europe for the most important structures, beginning with the construction of Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim. In the early Middle Ages, wooden stave churches were constructed throughout Norway. Some of them have survived; they represent Norway's most unusual contribution to architectural history. A fine example, Urnes Stave Church in inner Sognefjord, is on UNESCO's World Heritage List. Another notable example of wooden architecture is the buildings at Bryggen Wharf in Bergen, also on the list for World Cultural Heritage sites, consisting of a row of tall, narrow wooden structures along the quayside.

The 17th-century town of Røros, designated in 1980 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, has the narrow streets and wooden houses of the period.

In the 17th century, under the Danish monarchy, cities and villages such as Kongsberg and Røros were established. The city had a church built in the Baroque style. Traditional wooden buildings that were constructed in Røros have survived.

After Norway's union with Denmark was dissolved in 1814, Oslo became the capital. The architect Christian H. Grosch designed the earliest parts of the University of Oslo, the Oslo Stock Exchange, and many other buildings and churches constructed in that early national period.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the city of Ålesund was rebuilt in the Art Nouveau style, influenced by styles of France. The 1930s, when functionalism dominated, became a strong period for Norwegian architecture. It is only since the late 20th century that Norwegian architects have achieved international renown. One of the most striking modern buildings in Norway is the Sami Parliament in Kárášjohka, designed by Stein Halvorson and Christian Sundby. Its debating chamber, in timber, is an abstract version of a lavvo, the traditional tent used by the nomadic Sami people.^[213]

Art

Main article: Norwegian art

Brudeferd i Hardanger by Adolph Tidemand og Hans Gude, 1848

For an extended period, the Norwegian art scene was dominated by artwork from Germany and Holland as well as by the influence of Copenhagen. It was in the 19th century that a truly Norwegian era began, first with portraits, later with impressive landscapes. Johan Christian Dahl (1788–1857), originally from the Dresden school, eventually returned to paint the landscapes of western Norway, defining Norwegian painting for the first time."^[214]

Norway's newly found independence from Denmark encouraged painters to develop their Norwegian identity, especially with landscape painting by artists such as Kitty Kielland, a female painter who studied under Hans Gude, and Harriet Backer, another pioneer among female artists, influenced by impressionism. Frits Thaulow, an impressionist, was influenced by the art scene in Paris as was Christian Krohg, a realist painter, famous for his paintings of prostitutes.^[215]

Of particular note is Edvard Munch, a symbolist/expressionist painter who became world-famous for The Scream which is said to represent the anxiety of modern man.

Other artists of note include Harald Sohlberg, a neo-romantic painter remembered for his paintings of Røros, and Odd Nerdrum, a figurative painter who maintains that his work is not art but kitsch.

Cuisine

Main article: Norwegian cuisine

Norway's culinary traditions show the influence of long seafaring and farming traditions with salmon (fresh and cured), herring (pickled or marinated), trout, codfish and other seafood balanced by cheeses, dairy products and breads (predominantly dark/darker).

Lefse is a Norwegian potato flatbread, usually topped with large amounts of butter and sugar, most common around Christmas. Some traditional Norwegian dishes include lutefisk, smalahove, pinnekjøtt, raspeball and fårikål.^[216]

Sports

Biathlete Ole Einar Bjørndalen from Norway is the most successful Winter Olympian of all time, with 13 medals

Sports are a central part of Norwegian culture, and popular sports include Association football, biathlon, cross-country skiing, ski jumping and, to a lesser degree, ice hockey and handball. Norway is the most successful country in the Winter Olympics of all time.

Association football is the most popular sport in Norway in terms of active membership. In 2014–15 polling, football ranked far behind biathlon and cross-country skiing in terms of popularity as spectator sports.^[217] Ice hockey is the biggest indoor sport.^[218] The women's handball national team has won several titles, including two Summer Olympics championships (2008, 2012), three World Championships (1999, 2011, 2015) and six European Championship (1998, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2014).

The Norwegian national football team has participated three times in the FIFA World Cup (1938, 1994, 1998), and once in the European Championship (2000). The highest FIFA ranking Norway has achieved is 2nd, a position it has held twice, in 1993 and in 1995.^[219]

Chess is also gaining popularity in Norway. Magnus Carlsen is the current world champion.^[220] There are about 10 Grandmasters and 29 International Masters in Norway.

Norway first participated at the Olympic Games in 1900, and has sent athletes to compete in every Games since then, except for the sparsely attended 1904 Games and the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow when they participated in the American-led boycott. Famous Norwegian winter sport athletes are, for instance, biathlete Ole Einar Bjørndalen and cross country skiers Marit Bjørgen and Bjørn Dæhlie.

Norway has hosted the Games on two occasions:

1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo
1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer

International rankings

The following are international rankings of Norway, including those measuring life quality, health care quality, stability, press freedom, and income.

Index	Rank	Countries reviewed
Human Development Index 2015	1	187
Inequality adjusted Human Development Index 2015	1	150
OECD Better Life Index 2016	1	38
Legatum Prosperity Index 2015^[221]	1	142
Index of Public Integrity 2016^[222]	1	105
Democracy Index 2015	1	167
Freedom House ranking of political rights 2016^[223]	1	195
Freedom House ranking of civil liberties 2016^[223]	1	195
Save the Children State of the World's Mothers report 2015^[224]	1	179
Total health expenditure per capita 2013	1	188
Fragile States Index 2016^[222]	2	178
Gallup gross median household income 2013	2	131
Median equivalent adult income 2009–2014	2	35
International Property Rights Index 2015	2	129
Net international investment position of creditor nations per capita 2013	2	17
Euro health consumer index 2015^[225]	3	35
Press Freedom Index 2016	3	180
Global Gender Gap Report 2015	3	144
World Happiness Report 2016	4	157
EF English Proficiency Index 2015^[226]	4	70
Corruption Perceptions Index 2015	5	175
Networked Readiness Index 2014^[227]	5	144
Household final consumption expenditure per capita 2013	5	163
Ease of doing business index 2016	9	185
Global Peace Index 2016	17	163
Globalization Index 2015	18	207
Logistics Performance Index 2016^[223]	22	160
Index of Economic Freedom 2015	27	167

Notes

↑ The Spitsbergen Treaty (also known as the Svalbard Treaty) of 9 February 1920 recognises Norway's full and absolute sovereignty over the arctic archipelago of Spitsbergen (now called Svalbard).^[15]

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↑ "Lov om Sametinget og andre samiske rettsforhold (sameloven) – Lovdata". lovdata.no.
↑ "NOU 1995: 18 – Ny lovgivning om opplæring". Kunnskapsdepartementet. Archived from the original on 27 October 2014.
↑ "Kvener – Kainun institutti – Kvensk institutt". Kvenskinstitutt.no. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
↑ "Minoritetsspråkpakten". Fornyings-, administrasjons- og kirkedepartementet.
↑ "St.meld. nr. 35 (2007–2008) – Mål og meining". Kulturdepartementet. Archived from the original on 27 October 2014.
↑ "St.meld. nr. 35. Mål og meining : Ein heilskapleg norsk språkpolitikk". Kultur- og kirkedepartementet. 27 June 2008.
↑ "Tegnspråk blir offisielt språk". NRK. 26 June 2008.
↑ "Norway's Culture", Encarta. Webcitation.org. Archived from the original on 31 October 2009. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
↑ Aslaug Moksnes. Likestilling eller særstilling? Norsk kvinnesaksforening 1884–1913 (p. 35), Gyldendal Norsk Forlag, 1984, ISBN 82-05-15356-6
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↑ The Sami of Northern Europe 'However, as with many indigenous peoples, the Sami in Norway have suffered a past dominated by discrimination, particularly regarding religion and language.' United Nations Regional Information Centre for Western Europe. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
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1 2 http://integrity-index.org/. Missing or empty |title= (help)
1 2 3 http://lpi.worldbank.org/international/global/2016. Missing or empty |title= (help)
↑ (PDF) http://www.savethechildren.org/atf/cf/%7B9def2ebe-10ae-432c-9bd0-df91d2eba74a%7D/SOWM_EXECUTIVE_SUMMARY.PDF. Missing or empty |title= (help)
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Bibliography

Larsen, Karen (1948). A History of Norway. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Norway.

Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Norway.

Wikinews has related news: Norway

Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article Norway.

Norway.no, Norway's official portal
Norway at DMOZ
Statistics Norway
State of the Environment Norway
"Norway". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Norway entry at Encyclopædia Britannica
Norway from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Norway profile from the BBC News
Norway.info, official foreign portal of the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Norway travel guide from Wikivoyage
Wikimedia Atlas of Norway
Geographic data related to Norway at OpenStreetMap
Official facts about Norway
VisitNorway.com, official travel guide to Norway.
vifanord – a digital library that provides scientific information on the Nordic and Baltic countries as well as the Baltic region as a whole.
National Anthem of Norway on YouTube
Key Development Forecasts for Norway from International Futures
World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Norway

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Culture	Architecture Art Bunad (clothing) Cinema Cuisine Jante law Jul (season) Music Norwegian language Literature Media Prostitution Public holidays Sport Romantic nationalism

Symbols	Anthem Coat of arms Flags national flag Mottos Name of Norway

Outline

Category
Portal

Geographic locale

Nordic countries

Countries	Denmark Finland Iceland Norway Sweden

Dependencies	Åland Islands Faroe Islands Greenland

Climate of the Nordic countries Comparison of the Nordic countries Nordic Council Nordic Cross flag Subdivisions of the Nordic countries

Sovereign states and dependencies of Europe

Sovereign states

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Denmark	Faroe Islands constituent country

Finland	Åland Islands autonomous region

Norway	Jan Mayen Svalbard unincorporated areas

United Kingdom	Akrotiri and Dhekelia¹ sovereign base areas Gibraltar overseas territory Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey crown dependencies

¹ Partially in Asia, or entirely in Asia with cultural links to Europe. ² Partially in Africa

International organizations

Council of Europe

Institutions	Secretary General Committee of Ministers Parliamentary Assembly Congress Court of Human Rights Commissioner for Human Rights Commission for the Efficiency of Justice Commission against Racism and Intolerance

Members	Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia¹ Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom

Observers	Canada Holy See Israel Japan Mexico United States Sovereign Military Order of Malta

Former members	Czechoslovakia (1991–1992) Saar (assoc. 1950–1956)

¹ Provisionally referred to by the Council of Europe as "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia"; see Macedonia naming dispute.

Nordic Council

Members	Denmark Finland Iceland Norway Sweden

Associates	Åland Islands Faroe Islands Greenland

Observers	Estonia Latvia Lithuania

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

History	Convention on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD Anti-Bribery Convention

Guidelines	Multinational Enterprises Testing of Chemicals

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

History	North Atlantic Treaty Summit Operations Enlargement

Structure	Council Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe Allied Command Transformation Parliamentary Assembly

People	Secretary General Chairman of the Military Committee Supreme Allied Commander Europe Supreme Allied Commander Transformation

Members	Albania Belgium Bulgaria Canada Croatia Czech Republic Denmark Estonia France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Turkey United Kingdom United States

Multilateral relations	Atlantic Treaty Association Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council Major non-NATO ally Mediterranean Dialogue Istanbul Cooperation Initiative Partnership for Peace

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)

Members	Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Canada Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Holy See Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Malta Moldova Monaco Mongolia Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tajikistan Turkey Turkmenistan Ukraine United Kingdom United States Uzbekistan

Partners for Cooperation	Afghanistan Algeria Australia Egypt Israel Japan Jordan Morocco South Korea Thailand Tunisia

Bodies and posts	Parliamentary Assembly ODIHR Commissioner on National Minorities Representative on Freedom of the Media

World Trade Organization

System	Accession and membership Appellate Body Dispute Settlement Body International Trade Centre Chronology of key events

Issues	Criticism Doha Development Round Singapore issues Quota Elimination Peace Clause

Agreements	General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Agriculture Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Technical Barriers to Trade Trade Related Investment Measures Trade in Services Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Government Procurement Information Technology Marrakech Agreement Doha Declaration Bali Package

Ministerial Conferences	1st (1996) 2nd (1998) 3rd (1999) 4th (2001) 5th (2003) 6th (2005) 7th (2009) 8th (2011) 9th (2013) 10th (2015)

People	Roberto Azevêdo (Director-General) Pascal Lamy (former Director-General) Supachai Panitchpakdi (former Director-General) Deputy Directors-General: Yonov Frederick Agah Karl Brauner David Shark Yi Xiaozhun former: Alejandro Jara Valentine Rugwabiza Harsha Singh Rufus Yerxa

Members	Afghanistan Albania Algeria Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia Australia Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belize Benin Bolivia Botswana Brazil Brunei Burkina Faso Burma Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Costa Rica Côte d'Ivoire Cuba Djibouti Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador European Union¹ Fiji Gabon The Gambia Georgia Ghana Grenada Guatemala Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hong Kong² Iceland India Indonesia Israel Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lesotho Liberia Liechtenstein Macau² Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali Mauritania Mauritius Mexico Moldova Mongolia Montenegro Morocco Mozambique Namibia Nepal New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Norway Oman Pakistan Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Qatar Russia Rwanda St. Kitts and Nevis St. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Solomon Islands South Africa Sri Lanka Suriname Swaziland Switzerland Tajikistan Taiwan³ Tanzania Thailand Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United States Uruguay Venezuela Vietnam Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe 1. All twenty-eight member states of the European Union are also members of the WTO in their own right: Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden United Kingdom 2. Special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China, participates as "Hong Kong, China" and "Macao China". 3. Officially the Republic of China, participates as "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu", and "Chinese Taipei" in short.

Coordinates: 61°N 8°E / 61°N 8°E / 61; 8

Authority control	WorldCat Identities VIAF: 163579710 LCCN: n79021528 ISNI: 0000 0001 2298 9524 GND: 4042640-3 SUDOC: 026396009 BNF: cb11865124d (data) NDL: 00568689 NKC: ge130191 BNE: XX451946

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