Muslim women in sport

Taekwondo medalists from Spain, Britain, Iran and Egypt at Rio Olympics, 2016.[1]

Muslim women have been involved in sport since Islam's beginning in the early 7th century and Muhammad's races with his wife Aisha.[2][3][4][5] Modern Muslim female athletes have achieved success in a variety of sports, including volleyball, tennis, association football, fencing, and basketball.[6]

Still, Muslim women are underrepresented in athletic arenas, from school and amateur sports to international competitions.[7][8] Causes may include cultural or familial pressures, the lack of suitable facilities and programs, and bans on the hijab, the Islamic headscarf.[9] Muslim women have used sports as a means to empowerment, working towards health and wellbeing, women's rights, and education.[10][11]

Professional sports

Volleyball

Between 2010 and 2015, teams from Turkey and Azerbaijan won four out of six titles at the FIVB Volleyball Women's Club World Championship.[12] Both nations are part of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).[13] During the same period, in the CEV Women's Champions League, Turkish clubs won five out of six editions from 2010 to 2015.

The Turkish women's national volleyball team has enjoyed significant success in the twenty-first century. They won gold at the Mediterranean Games in 2005, finished first in the 2014 European League, and beat Poland 3-0 in the final of the inaugural European games in 2015.[14] Other notable women's national volleyball teams from the OIC include Azerbaijan, Algeria (who were African champions in 2009 and gold medallists at the 2011 All-Africa Games), and three-times African champions Tunisia.

In the 2016 Olympic Games, Egyptian beach volleyball player Doaa Elghobashy made international headlines for competing in pants, a long-sleeved shirt, and a hijab.[15] While she and her partner Nada Meawad did not advance to the knockout stage of the tournament, she saw the event as a chance to increase the visibility and participation of minorities in sports.[16]

Tennis

Women's tennis is rapidly growing in popularity within OIC member states. As of 2016, there are Women's Tennis Association (WTA) Tour events in Malaysia (Malaysian Open, Kuala Lumpur; inaugurated 2010), Morocco (Grand Prix SAR La Princesse Lalla Meryem, Rabat; 2001), Qatar (Qatar Open, Doha; 2001), Turkey (Istanbul Cup; 2005), the United Arab Emirates (Dubai Tennis Championships; 1993), and Uzbekistan (Tashkent Open; 1999).[17]

The popularity of women's tennis in the OIC region is expected grow as a number of key member states are experiencing rapid economic development and constructing tennis facilities on a previously unprecedented scale.[18][19][20]

Notable Muslim female tennis players include Aravane Rezaï and Sania Mirza.[21][22] Rezaï, an Iranian-French player, has won four WTA titles and achieved a career-high singles ranking of 15. Primarily a doubles player, Mirza reached a #1 doubles ranking in 2015, winning 40 career titles.[23] She has faced severe criticism from Muslim clerics in her native India, who condemn her decision to wear conventional tennis outfits as "indecent".[21]

Association football

Paris Saint-Germain attacking midfielder Fatmire Alushi

Women's football has significantly increased its profile within the OIC bloc in the twenty-first century. UEFA's Azerbaijan hosted the 2012 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup, and set an average match attendance record for the tournament (since broken by Costa Rica in 2014); the official mascot for this world cup was the Top Top Girl (Top Top Qız), a young girl with the national flag of Azerbaijan painted on her cheeks. Jordan will host the 2016 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup, the first female soccer world cup to be held anywhere in the Middle East.[24]

Additionally, three Asian regions containing significant numbers of OIC member states and/or large Muslim populations have inaugurated women's championships, including South Asia (SAFF Women's Championship, first edition held in 2010); ASEAN (AFF Women's Championship, 2006); and West Asia (West Asian Football Federation Championship, 2005).

A number of Muslim female footballers have been or are presently prominent players for various UEFA national teams in Western Europe. These include Fatmire Alushi (née Bajramaj), who was a world champion with Germany at the 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup in China and a two-time winner of the UEFA European Women's Championship (2009, 2013), and French national team player Jessica Houara-d'Hommeaux.[25][26]

Fencing

In 2016, fencer Ibtihaj Muhammad became the first American to compete in the Olympics while wearing a hijab. She chose the sport because it was one of the few that she could compete in without altering the uniform.[27] In an interview with Tamerra Griffin, she said that she hoped to be an impetus for diversity in a sphere that has "always been a white sport reserved for people with money".[28] Muhammad was ranked eighth in the world entering the 2016 Summer Olympics, but lost in the round of 16 to France's Cécelia Berder.[29]

Tunisian foil fencer Inés Boubakri won the bronze medal at the 2016 Summer Olympics, defeating Russian Aida Shanayeva in the medal round.[30] She dedicated her medal to all Arab women, saying that she wished her victory to be a message that "women exist and they have their place in society".[30]

Abdul-Qaadir playing for the University of Memphis

Basketball

Unlike many other sports associations, FIBA, basketball's international governing body, maintains a complete hijab ban. The regulation prohibits any headgear wider than five inches, which excludes hijabi women from participating.[31] The policy has recently received scrutiny from hundreds of thousands of individuals on social media, a movement that was headed by NCAA players Indira Kaljo and Bilqis Abdul-Qaadir.[32] Fellow players Ezdihar Abdulmula, Asma Elbadawi, Ki-Ke Rafiu, Raisa Aribatul, Raabya Pasha, Merve Sapci, and Noha Berhan have also created petitions asking FIBA to repeal the ban.[32] Both Kaljo and Abdul-Qaadir achieved considerable success in high school and college basketball. Abdul-Qaadir was the 2009 Massachusetts Gatorade Player of the Year, scored over 3000 points during high school (a state record for both boys and girls), and was named to the C-USA All-Academic team during her career at the University of Memphis.[33] Kaljo was a JUCO All-American player who only began wearing the hijab in her late 20s.[34] Both women are unable to pursue a professional basketball career as a result of their religious convictions.

Track and field

At the 2016 Summer Olympics, Dalilah Muhammad became the first American woman to win a gold medal in the 400 metre hurdles.[35] Muhammad's parents attribute her success to her "Muslim faith, discipline, and talent".[36] Other notable Muslim track and field athletes include Enas Mansour, Dina el-Tabaa, Shinoona Salah Al-Habsi, Kariman Abulijadayel, Kamiya Yousufi, and Sulaiman Fatima Dahman.[37][38]

Martial arts

In the 2016 Summer Olympics, more Muslim women won medals in martial arts events than in any other sport.[35] Majlinda Kelmendi won gold in judo in the 52-kg weight class, the first ever medal for her native Kosovo. Mariya Stadnik (48-kg wrestling) won silver for Azerbaijan, and Iranian Kimia Alizadeh Zenoorin and Egyptian Hedaya Malak tied for bronze in the 57-kg taekwondo event.[35] Other bronze medalists include Azerbaijani Patimat Abakarova (49-kg taekwondo), Tunisian Marwa Amri (58-kg wrestling), and Turkish Nur Tatar (67-kg taekwondo).[35]

Weightlifting

Until 2011, regulations requiring weightlifters' knees and elbows to be visible prevented conservative Muslim athletes from participating in elite competitions.[39] American weightlifter Kulsoom Abdullah compiled an extensive report to the International Weightlifting Federation arguing that she should be allowed to compete while covering her head, arms, and legs. With the help of Muslim activists, the US Olympic committee, and a lawyer, she was successful in overturning the regulation, and competed in a national championship later that year.[39][40] Several Muslim women won medals in weightlifting during the 2016 Sumer Olympics, including Kazakh Zhazira Zhapparkul, Indonesian Sri Wahyuni Agustiani, and Egyptian Sara Ahmed.[35]

Saudi mountain climber Raha Moharrak

Mountaineering

In 2005, Iranians Farkhondeh Sadegh and Leila Bahrami became the first Muslim women to successfully climb Mount Everest.[41] They dedicated their accomplishment to all Muslim women, saying, "People often seem to think Muslim women are limited. It would be a good chance to show the world that something like this is possible for us."[41] Palestinian Suzanne Al Houby became the first Arab woman to peak Everest in 2011.[42] Raha Moharrak became the youngest Arab and first Saudi woman to peak Everest in 2013.[43]

Amateur sports

Maldvian girls' soccer team

Researchers have found low participation rates in physical education and school sports among Muslim schoolgirls in both predominantly Muslim and predominantly non-Muslim nations.[9][44] In a study of Turkish middle schools, Hümeriç and colleagues found that girls were less likely to attend physical education classes, and were less active on average when they did participate.[44] This discrepancy is often even more pronounced in Western countries, where school policies on dress code and opposite-sex interaction often conflict with conservative Muslim students' values.[9] Muslim girls, for example, may be forced or pressured to remove their head coverings in order to participate in sports. Physical education may also pose problems for Muslim students whose beliefs require them to avoid physical contact with the opposite sex.[45]

Sports participation is likely to increase in predominantly Muslim countries, especially the Arab Gulf States, in the future.[46] Many OIC states have rapidly growing economies and increasingly youthful populations, which may increase market potential for professional sports, athletic products, and community sports organization.[47]

Factors affecting sports participation

Religious

In the Islamic conception, every human being has a responsibility towards oneself. Since human life is sacred and initially created by divine rather than human agency, people are responsible for trying to keep their bodies and souls healthy, and not causing themselves spiritual or physical harm.[2] Traditions record that Muḥammad raced with his wife 'Ā'ishah,[48] and that he encouraged parents to teach their children swimming, riding and archery.[3][49] Persian miniatures show Muslim women jointly playing polo with men in the same field.[3] In the twenty-first century, some Muslim sociologists even argue that it should be obligatory for Muslim females to participate in sport of some kind.[7]

Female-only gyms and competitions have also emerged as a way to increase Muslim women's participation in sports. In 2014, several members of Sport Against Racism Ireland created Diverse City FC, a football team for Muslim women that competed in the Fair Play Cup.[50] Similarly, in 1993 Faezeh Hashemi founded the Women's Islamic Games, an international event where all athletes, coaches, officials, and spectators were female,.[51] Since the hijab is generally worn only in the presence of males outside of the immediate family,[51] this format allows women to compete without facing scrutiny for they way they dress. Some communities have also created female-only gyms targeted specifically at Muslim women.[52] The Islamic Solidarity Games also seek to be compatible with the unique needs of Muslim female athletes, using sport to "protect the interests of the Muslim world" and "promoting international peace and harmony".[53]

Family

In a study of young Muslim women living in the United Kingdom, Kay Tess found that family influences heavily impacted their ability to participate in sports. The women spent much of their time within the home, and their outside activities were frequently monitored by their parents. Since there were very few culturally appropriate sports programs within their community, their participation was limited.[54] Managers of sports teams in predominantly Muslim countries also report difficulty in convincing parents to allow their daughters to participate in sports.[10]

Structural

The Iranian women's national football team training in Azadi Stadium

Many sports organizations and competitions do not provide the support and resources needed by Muslim female athletes.[55][56] For example, until 2012, athletes were not allowed to wear the Islamic headscarf, commonly known as the hijab, while competing in the majority of Olympic events.[57] The same year marked the first time that the Olympic Committee took Ramadan into account, scheduling events with fasting athletes early in the morning so that they would be maximally fed and hydrated.[55] Although sensitivity to the needs of Muslim athletes has increased at the elite level, many competitions still include significant structural barriers. The International Basketball Federation, for example, prohibits hijabi athletes from competing in any of its matches or tournaments.[31] FIFA also instituted a hijab ban in 2011, forcing the Iranian women's team to forfeit an Olympic qualifying match.[58] Such regulations are usually justified based on claims that hijabs are safety threats, increasing athletes' risk of suffocation and heatstroke.[59] To combat this issue, several companies have developed sports hijabs that are no more dangerous than commonplace sports equipment like jerseys and cleats.[56][11] In response, FIFA has since rescinded its hijab ban and now allows athletes to compete in approved sports hijabs[60]

Cultural

As is the case in many societies, gender roles prevalent in Muslim communities can limit women's participation in sports.[8] Traditional expectations focus on women's roles as wives and mothers, and often see sport as a primarily male domain.[8] Risa Isard found that female footballers and spectators in Iran, Palestine, and Turkey struggle with the popular view of football as a "man's game" that is unsuitable for women's participation.[61] Turkish national team player Esra Erol also reports that she was allowed to play football as a child, but that she faced greater scrutiny for her athletic pursuits as she reached adolescence and adulthood.[10] At the same time, sociologist Kay Tess observed that some Muslim families view sports as an unnecessary distraction from education, which they see as highly important.[54]

Cultural barriers to sports participation are by no means unique to Muslim societies.[54] In a wide variety of contexts, researchers have found gender differences in people's belief in their own athletic abilities. On average, men and boys perceive themselves as more athletically competent than women and girls, which may increase their propensity to participate in sports.[62] In adolescence, girls tend to have lower sports participation rates, and this discrepancy increases with age.[63] Additionally, women who participate in competitive sports are often negatively stigmatized as being lesbians, regardless of their actual sexuality.[64][65] Muslim women sometimes face cultural barriers to sports participation that are common across societies in addition to those specific to their communities.[54]

Media portrayal

Muslim women's participation in sports is often seen as an indication that they are becoming more liberated and Western.[66] For example, when Afghan sprinter Robina Muqimyar competed in the 2004 Summer Olympics, Western media sources praised her for exchanging the burqa, which they saw as inherently oppressive, for sports attire.[66] Mahfoud Amara labels this type of coverage as "orientalist" and "culturally imperialistic", as it measures Muslim women's freedom and wellbeing by whether or not they conform to Western athletic norms and expectations.[66] On the other hand, Muslim female athletes often face criticism and scrutiny when they do not conform to Western athletic ideals. Hijabi athletes were excluded from the Olympic Games until 1996, and debate continues about whether or not head covering is a religious symbol that is out of place in secular athletic spheres.[67] Samie and Sehlikoglu report that media coverage of hijabi athletes at the 2012 Summer Olympics portrayed them as "strange, incompetent, and out-of-place". Disproportionate attention was given to Muslim nations with a low female-to-male athlete ratio, as well as veiling and Radaman fasting. Reporters also frequently alluded to exotic sexuality of Muslim female athletes, fetishizing both their covering and their bodies.[68]

Some Muslim female athletes have expressed concern that media sources focus on their clothing choices to the exclusion of their athletic achievements.[68] For example, Turkish taekwondo athlete Kubra Dagli recently wrote on social media, “They don’t speak of my success, but of my headscarf. I don’t want this. Our success should be discussed."[69] Milliyet newspaper columnist Asu Maro documented two distinct sources of criticism Dagli faced - Muslims who saw taekwondo itself as improper for women, and secular organizations that wanted her to remove her hijab during competitions.[69] He condemned both groups as holding "sexist ideologies" that are harmful to Dagli and other Muslim female athletes.[69]

Empowerment through sports

Researchers have consistently found significant positive effects of sports participation, both within Muslim communities and in the general population.[54][11][61][70][71] Specifically, organized physical activity promotes physical, psychological, and social wellbeing, leadership skills, and community involvement.[70] Many women also use sport as a way to challenge traditional gender norms and obtain an education.[10][11]

Health and wellbeing

In addition to promoting physical health, sports can provide an avenue for community and collective identity, giving women the chance to connect with others who have similar interests.[11] Studies have found that sports participation is correlated with increased social integration and belonging in a number of contexts, including university intramurals, community sports, and children's athletic programs.[72][73] Researchers at the Lakshmibai National University of Physical Education in India found that women can experience several types of empowerment through sports participation, including enhanced leadership self-efficacy, more opportunities to implement leadership skills, and decreased vulnerability to gender violence.[70] Identification with the fanbase of a professional sports team can also promote psychological wellbeing and protect against depression and alienation.[74]

Women's rights

Muslim women have used sports as a way to challenge patriarchal norms.[11] In a case study of the Palestinian women's national football team, Gieβ-Stüber and colleagues found that sport had become a "social movement for self-determination, agency, peace and friendship" in the players' lives.[71] Several of the players also saw their athletics as opportunities to challenge assumptions about the roles and capabilities of women. Specifically, player Jackline Jazrawl wanted to use football to prove that "women are free and can do whatever men do".[61] Local Palestinian leaders supported this movement by providing free tickets to home matches, and thousands of men and women attended.[75]

Some Muslim female athletes also see their athletic success as an opportunity to challenge the way non-Muslim communities view Muslim women.[41] For example, mountain climber Leila Bahrami called her successful ascent of Mount Everest a way to "show the world" that Muslim women are capable rather than "limited".[41]

Education

Swimmer Farida Osman cited education as an important factor behind her dedication to sports.

Some professional and semiprofessional sports leagues are specifically focused on giving women and girls the chance to receive an education. For example, Sakarya, a women's football club in Turkey, encourages its players to use their stipends to pursue a university education. This opportunity is even influential in convincing families to let their daughters play football, which is traditionally considered to be a man's game.[10] Athletic scholarships can also be influential in Muslim girls' decisions to continue pursuing sports during and after secondary school.[76] Several professional Muslim female athletes, including tennis player Fatma Al Nabhani and swimmer Farida Osman, cited education as important to their athletic careers.[76] Their athletic scholarships allowed them to continue competing while also earning a university degree.[76]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Patrick Johnston (Aug 19, 2016). "Kimia Alizadeh Zenoorin Becomes The First Iranian Woman To Win An Olympic Medal". Reuters/Huffington Post.
  2. 1 2 Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2004). The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity. New York: HarperOne. pp. 278–279. ISBN 978-0-06-073064-2.
  3. 1 2 3 Al-Hassani, Salim (Spring 2012). "A 1000 Years Amnesia: Sports in Muslim Heritage". MuslimHeritage.com. Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilisation. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  4. ↑ Wanderi, Mwangi Peter (2011-01-01). The Indigenous Games of the People of the Coastal Region of Kenya: A Cultural and Educational Appraisal. African Books Collective. p. 122. ISBN 9789994455560.
  5. ↑ "Regarding Foot Races : Book of Jihad (Kitab Al-Jihad) : Sunan Abi Dawud". sunnah.com. Retrieved 2016-11-30.
  6. ↑ Culpepper, Chuck (2016-07-29). "Muslim female athletes find sport so essential they compete while covered". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2016-10-17.
  7. 1 2 Pfister, Gertrud (Summer 2006). "Islam and Women's Sports". APCEIU. Asia-Pacific Centre of Education for International Understanding. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  8. 1 2 3 Sfeir, Leila (1985-12-01). "The Status of Muslim Women in Sport: Conflict between Cultural Tradition and Modernization". International Review for the Sociology of Sport. 20 (4): 283–306. doi:10.1177/101269028502000404. ISSN 1012-6902.
  9. 1 2 3 Dagkas, Symeon; Benn, Tansin; Jawad, Haifaa (2011-03-01). "Multiple voices: improving participation of Muslim girls in physical education and school sport". Sport, Education and Society. 16 (2): 223–239. doi:10.1080/13573322.2011.540427. ISSN 1357-3322.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Worldfocus (2009-09-10), Female soccer players shoot down Turkish taboos, retrieved 2016-10-04
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Contomichalos, Stephanie. "How is Sport Employed as a Vehicle for Redefining Gender Identity in Islamic Societies?" Retrieved 4, no. 7 (2010): 2015.
  12. ↑ "Previous Editions - FIVB Volleyball Women's Club World Championship 2016". clubworldchampionships.2016.women.fivb.com. Retrieved 2016-10-08.
  13. ↑ "Organisation of Islamic Cooperation". www.oic-oci.org. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
  14. ↑ "Turkey beat under-par Poland for Volleyball gold". Baku 2015: 1st European Games. 27 June 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  15. ↑ Cohen, Roger (2016-08-11). "Olympians in Hijab and Bikini". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-10-08.
  16. ↑ "Olympic volleyball player capturing global attention for her hijab speaks out". The Independent. 2016-08-09. Retrieved 2016-10-08.
  17. ↑ "BNP Paribas Open". Women's Tennis Association. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
  18. ↑ Budisatrijo, Alice (2 February 2014). "Tennis in Indonesia stuck on the baseline". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 16 June 2016.
  19. ↑ "Does Turkey have what it takes to become a tennis nation?". CIHAN News Agency. 16 December 2012. Retrieved 16 June 2016.
  20. ↑ Dyussembekova, Zhazira (29 December 2015). "Tennis Popularity Grows in Kazakhstan". The Astana Times. Svezhaya Pressa LLP. Retrieved 16 June 2016.
  21. 1 2 "Fatwas, Feminism, and Forehands: The Life of Indian Tennis Superstar Sania Mirza | VICE Sports". VICE Sports. Retrieved 2016-10-08.
  22. ↑ "Muslim Female Tennis Players a Rare Species - TennisForum.com". www.tennisforum.com. Retrieved 2016-10-08.
  23. ↑ "Players". Women's Tennis Association. Retrieved 2016-10-08.
  24. ↑ Collett, Mike (8 May 2015). "Jordan World Cup a significant milestone for women". Reuters. Retrieved 16 June 2016.
  25. ↑ Lewellen, Andrew (15 May 2015). "Past Plays Powerful Role In Life Of German Footballer Fatmire Alushi". ESPN. ESPN Inc. Retrieved 16 June 2016.
  26. ↑ Ahmed, Laurent Dubois and Shireen. "The cultural significance of the hijab and France's Jessica Houara". SI.com. Retrieved 2016-10-24.
  27. ↑ Phippen, J. Weston. "An American Hijab at the Olympics". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2016-10-08.
  28. ↑ "Meet The Badass Fencer Representing The U.S. At The Olympics In Hijab". BuzzFeed. Retrieved 2016-10-08.
  29. ↑ "US fencer Ibtihaj Muhammad makes history despite exiting in round of 16 at Rio 2016". Rio 2016. Retrieved 2016-10-22.
  30. 1 2 "Rio Olympics 2016: Tunisian fencer Ines Boubakri dedicates historic medal to Arab women - Firstpost". Firstpost. 2016-08-11. Retrieved 2016-11-03.
  31. 1 2 "Hijabs and Turbans Are Not a Threat to Sports". Motto. Retrieved 2016-10-08.
  32. 1 2 "» Muslim Basketball Players Urge FIBA To Allow Hijab". Retrieved 2016-10-08.
  33. ↑ "Bilqis Abdul-Qaadir - 2009-10". Retrieved 2016-10-08.
  34. ↑ Burton, Austin L. (2014-07-07). "Basketball pro Indira Kaljo ready to fight FIBA over hijab". Ummah Sports. Retrieved 2016-10-08.
  35. 1 2 3 4 5 Mic. "Meet these 14 incredible Muslim women athletes who won medals at the 2016 Rio Olympics". Mic. Retrieved 2016-11-03.
  36. ↑ "Parents of Queens Track and Field Star Get Ready to Cheer Her On in Olympics". TWC News. Retrieved 2016-11-03.
  37. ↑ "Why Some Faith-Based Sports Uniforms Get Banned". Retrieved 2016-11-03.
  38. ↑ "Historic moment sprinter becomes first Saudi woman to compete in 100m". Mail Online. Retrieved 2016-11-03.
  39. 1 2 "Female Muslim weightlifter competes in covering". ESPN.com. Retrieved 2016-11-03.
  40. ↑ "Muslim weightlifter fights to compete, hijabi-style". msnbc.com. 2011-06-30. Retrieved 2016-11-03.
  41. 1 2 3 4 "'I'm doing this for all Muslim women'". The Guardian. 2005-05-25. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2016-11-04.
  42. ↑ Muzaffar, Mahrukh (2012-12-05). "Palestinian woman mountaineer's journey to the top of the world". Al Arabiya News.
  43. ↑ Mic. "Meet the Athletes Shattering Stereotypes About Muslim Women in Sports". Mic. Retrieved 2016-11-04.
  44. 1 2 Muslim Women and Sport. Routledge. 2009. pp. 154–163. ISBN 978-0-415-49076-4.
  45. ↑ Alamri, Abeer Ahmed (2013-09-01). "Participation of Muslim Female Students in Sporting Activities in Australian Public High Schools: The Impact of Religion". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 33 (3): 418–429. doi:10.1080/13602004.2013.853980. ISSN 1360-2004.
  46. ↑ Ahmad, Nida (31 December 2015). "The Gulf: A New Arena for Muslim Women in Sports". The Arab Gulf States Institute in Washington. Retrieved 19 October 2016.
  47. ↑ PricewaterhouseCoopers. "Nigeria, Indonesia and Mexico set to push UK and France out of top 10 by 2050". PwC. Retrieved 2016-10-19.
  48. ↑ "Hadith - The Chapters on Marriage - Sunan Ibn Majah - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". www.sunnah.com. Retrieved 2016-11-21.
  49. ↑ "Teach your children swimming, archery and horse riding". Hadith Answers. 2016-03-07. Retrieved 2016-11-24.
  50. ↑ "Hijabs and Hat-tricks: Muslim women lead the field". The Irish Times. Retrieved 2016-10-08.
  51. 1 2 "Muslim Female Athletes in Sports and Dress Code: Major Obstacle in International Competitions". Journal of Experimental Sciences. 2.
  52. ↑ Shavit, Uriya; Wiesenbach, Frederic (2012-03-01). "An "Integrating Enclave": The Case of Al-Hayat, Germany's First Islamic Fitness Center for Women in Cologne". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 32 (1): 47–61. doi:10.1080/13602004.2012.665621. ISSN 1360-2004.
  53. ↑ "Baku 2017". www.baku2017.com. Retrieved 2016-10-19.
  54. 1 2 3 4 5 Kay, Tess (2006-12-01). "Daughters of Islam Family Influences on Muslim Young Women's Participation in Sport". International Review for the Sociology of Sport. 41 (3–4): 357–373. doi:10.1177/1012690207077705. ISSN 1012-6902.
  55. 1 2 Geddes, Linda (13 August 2011). "Will Ramadan Fast Slow Olympic Muslims Down?".
  56. 1 2 Ayub, Awista (2011-01-01). "A Closer Look at FIFA's Hijab Ban: What it Means for Muslim Players and Lessons Learned". SAIS Review of International Affairs. 31 (1): 43–50. doi:10.1353/sais.2011.0010. ISSN 1945-4724.
  57. ↑ Azizi, Parand, and Kamal Halili Hassan. "Iranian women, sport and the Hijab issue." Social Sciences (Pakistan) 9.6 (2014): 492–498.
  58. ↑ "FIFA Defends Hijab Ban After Iranian Team Forfeits Olympic Qualifier". June 7, 2011.
  59. ↑ Phippen, J. Weston (February 4, 2016). "An American Hijab at the Olympics".
  60. ↑ "FIFA Allows Wearing of Head Covers for Religious Reasons". March 1, 2014.
  61. 1 2 3 Erdoglu, Velihad; Isard, Risa; Mammo, Danny; Kim, Brian. "Women's Football for Social Change". Soccer Politics: A Discussion Forum about the Power of the Global Game. Duke University.
  62. ↑ Gentile, Brittany; Dolan-Pascoe, Brenda; Twenge, Jean M.; Grabe, Shelby; Wells. "Gender Differences in Domain-Specific Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analysis". Review of General Psychology. 13.
  63. ↑ "Changes in Children's Self-Competence and Values: Gender and Domain Differences across Grades One through Twelve". Child Development. 73.
  64. ↑ "Women Athletes as Falsely Accused Deviants: Managing the Lesbian Stigma". Sociological Quarterly. 33.
  65. ↑ sport, Guardian (2015-05-19). "Italian women's cup final off after official's alleged 'lesbians' comment". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2016-10-19.
  66. 1 2 3 Amara, Mahfoud. "The Muslim World in the Global Sporting Arena". Brown Journal of World Affairs. 14.
  67. ↑ Amara, Mahfoud (2012-03-01). "Veiled Women Athletes in the 2008 Beijing Olympics: Media Accounts". The International Journal of the History of Sport. 29 (4): 638–651. doi:10.1080/09523367.2012.658194. ISSN 0952-3367.
  68. 1 2 Samie, Sumaya Farooq; Sehlikoglu, Sertaç (2015-05-04). "Strange, Incompetent and Out-Of-Place". Feminist Media Studies. 15 (3): 363–381. doi:10.1080/14680777.2014.947522. ISSN 1468-0777.
  69. 1 2 3 "Islamists in Turkey can't decide whether they love or hate this hijab-wearing Taekwondo champion". The Independent. 2016-10-20. Retrieved 2016-11-03.
  70. 1 2 3 Dubey, Bipin Kumar; Dubey, Binayak Kumar; Acharya, Jayashree (2010-09-01). "Participation in sport as an assessment of women empowerment". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 44 (Suppl 1): i62–i62. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2010.078725.208. ISSN 1473-0480.
  71. 1 2 Benn, Tansin; Pfister, Gertrud; Jawad, Haifaa (2011). Muslim Women and Sport. Routledge. p. 169.
  72. ↑ "The Social Benefits of Intramural Sports". NASPA Journal. 43.
  73. ↑ "The Psychological and Social Benefits of Sport and Physical Activity". Journal of Leisure Research. 22.
  74. ↑ Branscombe, Nyla R.; Wann, Daniel L. (1991-09-01). "The Positive Social and Self Concept Consequences of Sports Team Identification". Journal of Sport & Social Issues. 15 (2): 115–127. doi:10.1177/019372359101500202. ISSN 0193-7235.
  75. ↑ Gilinsky, Jaron (2009-10-29). "Playing Soccer for More Than a Win". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-10-03.
  76. 1 2 3 Culpepper, Chuck (2016-07-13). "Marriage, motherhood, education, maybe sports: female Muslim athletes' expected priorities". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2016-11-03.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 11/30/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.