Xanthosoma
Xanthosoma | |
---|---|
Xanthosoma roseum | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
(unranked): | Angiosperms |
(unranked): | Monocots |
Order: | Alismatales |
Family: | Araceae |
Subfamily: | Aroideae |
Tribe: | Caladieae |
Genus: | Xanthosoma Schott[1] |
Range of the genus Xanthosoma | |
Synonyms[2] | |
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Xanthosoma is a genus of flowering plants in the arum family, Araceae. The genus is native to tropical America but widely cultivated and naturalized in other tropical regions.[2] Several are grown for their starchy corms, an important food staple of tropical regions, known variously as malanga, otoy, otoe, cocoyam (or new cocoyam), tannia, tannier, yautía, macabo, ocumo, macal, taioba, dasheen, quequisque, ʻape and (in Papua New Guinea) as Singapore taro (taro kongkong). Many other species (including especially X. roseum) are used as ornamental plants, and in popular horticultural literature are known as ‘ape or elephant ear (from the purported resemblance of the leaf to an elephant's ear), although the latter name is sometimes also applied to members with similar appearance and uses in the closely related genera Caladium, Colocasia (i.e., taro), and Alocasia. The leaves of most Xanthosoma species are 40-200 cm long, sagittate (arrowhead-shaped) or subdivided into three or as many as 18 segments. Unlike the leaves of Colocasia, those of Xanthosoma are usually not peltate- the upper v-notch extends into the point of attachment of the leaf petiole to the blade.
Etymology
The name is derived from the Greek words ξανθὸς (xanthos), meaning "yellow," and σῶμα (soma), meaning "body." It refers to the stigma or yellow inner tissues.[3]
Reproduction
The inflorescence in Xanthosoma is composed of a spadix with pistillate flowers at the base, a belt of sterile flowers offered as a reward for pollinators in the middle and staminate flowers on the upper part. Prior to opening, the inflorescence is enclosed within a leaf-like spathe. When the inflorescence is ready to open, the upper part of the spathe opens and exposes the staminate area of the spadix; the basal area of the spathe remains closed, forming a spacious chamber (i.e., the spathe tube) that encloses the pistillate and sterile flowers (Garcia-Robledo et al. (2004, 2005a, 2005b)).
The inflorescences last for two nights and are protogynous in some species (though not others (Valerio (1988)), changing from the pistillate phase that attracts pollinators on the night it opens, to a staminate phase on the second night, when pollen is shed. When the inflorescence opens, it produces heat and releases a sweet scent attracting its pollinators, dynastine beetles (Cyclocephala spp.). Dynastines arrive covered with pollen from another inflorescence and remain in the spathe tube for 24 hours, pollinating the pistillate flowers as they feed on the sterile area of the spadix. On the second night, they come out of the tube and walk over the staminate flowers, getting covered with pollen, and then flying to a recently opened inflorescence nearby. (Garcia-Robledo et al. (2004, 2005a, 2005b)). Fruit maturation takes several months. Fruits start to develop within the shelter of the spathe tube. When the infructescence is mature, in some species, it arches back and downwards. In other species, it stays erect. Then, the tissue of the spathe tube rolls outwards, exhibiting the bright orange fruits and the velvety pink inner spathe surface.[4][5][6][7]
Crop uses
Rank | Country | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Cuba | 153782 | 185922 | 269590 |
2 | Venezuela | 75132 | 84516 | 85607 |
3 | El Salvador | 43000 | 43000 | 41110 |
4 | Peru | 29200 | 30000 | 30960 |
5 | Costa Rica | 11692 | 23742 | 30000 |
6 | Dominican Republic | 32595 | 29104 | 28180 |
— | World | 378952 | 423415 | 508079 |
Domestication of Xanthosoma species (especially X. sagittifolium but also X. atrovirens, X. violaceum, X. maffaffa, and others) is thought to have originated in northern lowland South America, then spread to the Antilles and Mesoamerica. Today, Xanthosoma is still grown in all those regions, but is especially popular in Cuba and Puerto Rico, where it is used in alcapurrias or boiled. It is grown in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Jamaica to make the popular callaloo dish. It is also grown in West Africa, now a major producer, where it can be used as a replacement for yams in a popular regional dish called fufu. Xanthosoma is also grown as a crop in the Philippines.
Traditionally, Xanthosoma has been a subsistence crop with excess sold at local markets, but in the United States, large numbers of Latin American immigrants have created a market for commercial production. In general, production has yet to meet demand in some areas. In Polynesia, Xanthosoma (‘ape) was considered a famine food, used only in the event of failure of the much preferred taro (kalo) crop.
The typical Xanthosoma plant has a growing cycle of 9 to 11 months, during which time it produces a large stem called a corm, this surrounded by smaller edible cormels about the size of potatoes. These cormels (like the corm) are rich in starch. Their taste has been described as earthy and nutty, and they are a common ingredient in soups and stews. They may also be eaten grilled, fried, or puréed. The young, unfurled leaves of some varieties can be eaten as boiled leafy vegetables or used in soups and stews, such as the Caribbean callaloo.
Flour made from Xanthosoma species is hypoallergenic.[9]
- Species[2]
- Xanthosoma acutum E.G.Gonç. - French Guiana, Amapá State of Brazil
- Xanthosoma akkermansii (G.S.Bunting) Croat - Amazonas + Barinas States of Venezuela
- Xanthosoma aristeguietae (G.S.Bunting) Madison - Venezuela, northwestern Brazil
- Xanthosoma auriculatum Regel - northwestern Brazil
- Xanthosoma baguense Croat - northern Peru
- Xanthosoma bayo G.S.Bunting - Venezuela
- Xanthosoma belophyllum (Willd.) Kunth - Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas; naturalized in Dominican Republic
- Xanthosoma bilineatum Rusby - Colombia
- Xanthosoma bolivaranum G.S.Bunting - Venezuela
- Xanthosoma brasiliense (Desf.) Engl. – Tahitian spinach - Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, Trinidad & Tobago; naturalized in southern Brazil
- Xanthosoma brevispathaceum Engl. - Peru
- Xanthosoma caladioides Grayum - Panama
- Xanthosoma caracu K.Koch & C.D.Bouché – yautia horqueta - Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic
- Xanthosoma caulotuberculatum G.S.Bunting - Venezuela
- Xanthosoma conspurcatum Schott - Venezuela, Suriname, French Guiana
- Xanthosoma contractum G.S.Bunting - Bolívar State of Venezuela
- Xanthosoma cordatum N.E.Br. - Guyana, French Guiana
- Xanthosoma cordifolium N.E.Br. - Guyana
- Xanthosoma cubense (Schott) Schott - Cuba
- Xanthosoma daguense Engl. - Colombia, Ecuador
- Xanthosoma dealbatum Grayum - Costa Rica
- Xanthosoma eggersii Engl. - Ecuador
- Xanthosoma exiguum G.S.Bunting - Amazonas State of Venezuela
- Xanthosoma flavomaculatum Engl. - Colombia
- Xanthosoma fractum Madison - Peru
- Xanthosoma granvillei Croat & Thomps. - French Guiana
- Xanthosoma guttatum Croat & D.C.Bay - Valle del Cauca in Colombia
- Xanthosoma hebetatum Croat & D.C.Bay - Valle del Cauca in Colombia
- Xanthosoma helleborifolium (Jacq.) Schott – belembe silvestre - from Costa Rica south to central Brazil; naturalized in West Indies
- Xanthosoma herrerae Croat & P.Huang - Colombia
- Xanthosoma hylaeae Engl. & K.Krause - Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, northwestern Brazil
- Xanthosoma latestigmatum Bogner & E.G.Gonç. - Venezuela
- Xanthosoma longilobum G.S.Bunting - Venezuela
- Xanthosoma lucens E.G.Gonç - Rondônia
- Xanthosoma mafaffoides G.S.Bunting - Amazonas State of Venezuela
- Xanthosoma mariae Bogner & E.G.Gonç. - Peru
- Xanthosoma maroae G.S.Bunting - Amazonas State of Venezuela
- Xanthosoma maximiliani Schott - eastern Brazil
- Xanthosoma mendozae Matuda - México State in central México
- Xanthosoma mexicanum Liebm. - Chiapas, Oaxaca, Central America, Colombia, Venezuela
- Xanthosoma narinoense Bogner & L.P.Hannon - Colombia
- Xanthosoma nitidum G.S.Bunting - Venezuela
- †Xanthosoma obtusilobum Engl. - Mexico, probably extinct
- Xanthosoma orinocense G.S.Bunting - Amazonas State of Venezuela
- Xanthosoma paradoxum (Bogner & Mayo) Bogner - Colombia
- Xanthosoma pariense G.S.Bunting - Venezuela
- Xanthosoma peltatum G.S.Bunting - Venezuela
- Xanthosoma pentaphyllum (Schott) Engl. - Brazil
- Xanthosoma platylobum (Schott) Engl. - Brazil
- Xanthosoma plowmanii Bogner - Brazil
- Xanthosoma poeppigii Schott - Peru, Bolivia, northwestern Argentina
- Xanthosoma pottii E.G.Gonç. - Mato Grosso do Sul
- Xanthosoma puberulum Croat - Bolivia
- Xanthosoma pubescens Poepp. - Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, northwestern Brazil
- Xanthosoma pulchrum E.G.Gonç. - Mato Grosso
- Xanthosoma riedelianum (Schott) Schott - southeastern Brazil
- Xanthosoma riparium E.G.Gonç. - Goiás
- Xanthosoma robustum Schott – capote - Mexico, Central America; naturalized in Hawaii
- Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott (Syn. Xanthosoma atrovirens K.Koch & C.D.Bouché, Xanthosoma violaceum Schott)- arrowleaf elephant ear, tiquizque, macal, nampi or malanga - Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil; naturalized in West Indies, Africa, Bangladesh, Borneo, Malaysia, Christmas Island, Norfolk Island, some Pacific Islands, Alabama, Florida, Texas, Georgia,[10] Oaxaca[11]
- Xanthosoma saguasense G.S.Bunting - Venezuela
- Xanthosoma seideliae Croat - Bolivia
- Xanthosoma stenospathum Madison - Peru
- Xanthosoma striatipes (K.Koch & C.D.Bouché) Madison - Brazil, the Guianas, Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia, Paraguay
- Xanthosoma striolatum Mart. ex Schott - French Guiana, northern Brazil
- Xanthosoma syngoniifolium Rusby - Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil
- Xanthosoma taioba E.G.Gonç. - Paraíba
- Xanthosoma tarapotense Engl. - Peru
- Xanthosoma trichophyllum K.Krause - Peru, Ecuador
- Xanthosoma trilobum G.S.Bunting - Amazonas State of Venezuela
- Xanthosoma ulei Engl. - northwestern Brazil
- Xanthosoma undipes (K.Koch) K.Koch – tall elephant's ear - widespread from Bolivia north to southern Mexico and West Indies
- Xanthosoma viviparum Madison - Peru, Ecuador
- Xanthosoma weeksii Madison - Ecuador
- Xanthosoma wendlandii (Schott) Schott (syn. Xanthosoma hoffmannii Schott, Xanthosoma pedatum Hemsl.) - American taro - Oaxaca, Central America, Venezuela
- Xanthosoma yucatanense Engl. - Yucatán, Quintana Roo
Formerly placed in genus Xanthosoma
- Caladium lindenii (André) Madison (as X. lindenii (André) Engl.)
Gallery
- Inflorescence of Xanthosoma sagittifolium
- Inflorescence of X. daguense
- Beetle pollination in X. daguense
- Infructescence of X. poeppigii (Peruvian Amazonas); X. daguense (Western Cordillera of Los Andes, Colombia)
References
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Xanthosoma. |
Wikispecies has information related to: Xanthosoma |
- ↑ "Genus: Xanthosoma Schott". Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 2003-07-09. Retrieved 2012-07-13.
- 1 2 3 Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families
- ↑ Quattrocchi, Umberto (2000). CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names. Volume IV R-Z. Taylor & Francis US. p. 2849. ISBN 978-0-8493-2678-3.
- ↑ Garcia-Robledo, Carlos; et al. (2004), "Beetle pollination and fruit predation in Xanthosoma daguense (Araceae)", Journal of Tropical Ecology, 20 (4): 459–469, doi:10.1017/S0266467404001610
- ↑ Garcia-Robledo, Carlos; et al. (2005a), "Equal and opposite effects of floral offer and spatial distribution on fruit production and pre-dispersal seed predation in Xanthosoma daguense (Araceae)", Biotropica, 37 (3): 373–380, doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2005.00049.x
- ↑ Garcia-Robledo, Carlos; et al. (2005b), "Geographic Variation and Succession of Arthropod Communities in Inflorescences and Infructescences of Xanthosoma (Araceae)", Biotropica, 37 (4): 650–656, doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2005.00082.x
- ↑ Valerio, C. E. (1988), "Notes on the phenology and pollination of Xanthosoma wendlandii (Araceae) in Costa Rica" (PDF), Rev. Biol. Trop., 36: 55–61
- ↑ "Production of Yautia (Cocoyam) by countries". UN Food & Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2014. Archived from the original on July 13, 2011. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
- ↑ Vaneker, K. The Pomtajer. Page 216 In: Friedland, S. R., Ed. Vegetables: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cooking 2008: Volume 26 of Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery. Oxford Symposium, 2009.
- ↑ Biota of North America Program, 2013 county distribution map
- ↑ García-Mendoza, A. J. & J. Meave del Castillo. 2011. Divers. Florist. Oaxaca 1–351. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria
External links
- Xanthosoma spp. at Purdue University, Center for New Crops & Plants Products
- Distribution and names of edible aroids