Quinoa

Quinoa
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Eudicots
(unranked):	Core eudicots
Order:	Caryophyllales
Family:	Amaranthaceae
Subfamily:	Chenopodioideae
Genus:	Chenopodium
Species:	C. quinoa
Binomial name
Chenopodium quinoa Willd.
Natural distribution in red, Cultivation in green
Synonyms[1]
Chenopodium canihua O.F.Cook Chenopodium ccoyto Toro Torr. Chenopodium ccuchi-huila Toro Torr. Chenopodium chilense Pers. nom. inval. Chenopodium guinoa Krock. Chenopodium nuttalliae Saff.

Landscape with Chenopodium quinoa near Cachilaya, Lake Titicaca, Bolivia

Quinoa (kēn’wä, from Quechua kinwa or kinuwa)^[2] is the common name for Chenopodium quinoa of the flowering plant family Amaranthaceae. It is grown as a grain crop primarily for its edible seeds. It is a pseudocereal, rather than a true cereal, as it is not a grass. Quinoa is closely related to species such as beetroots and spinach and to amaranth, another pseudocereal which it closely resembles. After harvest, the seeds are processed to remove the coating containing the bitter-tasting saponins. The seeds are in general cooked in the same way as rice and can be used in a wide range of dishes. The leaves are eaten as a leaf vegetable, much like amaranth, but commercial availability of quinoa greens is limited.

When cooked, the nutrient composition is comparable to common cereals, supplying a moderate amount of dietary fiber and minerals. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations declared 2013 to be the International Year of Quinoa.^[3]

Quinoa originated in the Andean region of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia and Chile,^[4] and was domesticated 3,000 to 4,000 years ago for human consumption in the Lake Titicaca basin, though archaeological evidence shows a non-domesticated association with pastoral herding some 5,200 to 7,000 years ago.^[5]

Biology

Quinoa seeds

Quinoa plant before flowering

Chenopodium quinoa is a dicotyledonous annual plant usually about 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) high. It has broad, generally pubescent, powdery, smooth (rarely) to lobed leaves normally arranged alternately. The woody central stem is branched or unbranched depending on the variety and may be green, red or purple. The flowering panicles arise from the top of the plant or from leaf axils along the stem. Each panicle has a central axis from which a secondary axis emerges either with flowers (amaranthiform) or bearing a tertiary axis carrying the flowers (glomeruliform).^[6] The green hypogynous flowers have a simple perianth and are generally self-fertilizing.^[6][7] The fruits are about 2 mm (0.08 in) in diameter and of various colors—from white to red or black, depending on the cultivar.^[8]

Natural distribution

Chenopodium quinoa is believed to have been domesticated in the Peruvian Andes from wild or weed populations of the same species.^[9] There are non-cultivated quinoa plants (Chenopodium quinoa var. melanospermum) that grow in the area it is cultivated; these may either be related to wild predecessors, or they could be descendants of cultivated plants.^[10]

Saponin content

Red quinoa, cooked

In their natural state, the seeds have a coating of bitter-tasting saponins, making them unpalatable. Most of the grain sold commercially has been processed to remove this coating.^[11] This bitterness has beneficial effects during cultivation, as it is unpopular with birds and therefore requires minimal protection.^[12] The genetic control of bitterness involves quantitative inheritance; lowering the saponin content through selective breeding to produce sweeter, more palatable varieties is complicated by about 10% cross-pollination.^[13]

The toxicity category rating of quinoa saponins treats them as mild eye and respiratory irritants and as a low gastrointestinal irritant.^[14][15] The saponin is a toxic glycoside, a main contributor to its hemolytic effects when combined directly with blood cells. In South America, quinoa saponin has many uses, including as a detergent for clothing and washing and as an antiseptic for skin injuries.^[14] High levels of oxalic acid are in the leaves and stems of all species of the Chenopodium genus, and are also in the related genera of the Amaranthaceae family.^[16] The risks associated with quinoa are minimal, provided it is properly prepared and the leaves are not eaten to excess.

Nutritional value

Raw (uncooked) quinoa is 13% water, 64% carbohydrates, 14% protein and 6% fat (top nutrient table). Nutritional evaluations indicate that a 100 g (3.5 oz) serving of raw quinoa is a rich source (20% or higher of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several B vitamins and dietary minerals (top table).

After cooking — the typical preparation for eating — quinoa is 72% water, 21% carbohydrates, 4% protein and 2% fat and its nutrient contents are collectively and substantially reduced (bottom nutrient table).^[14] In a 100 g (3.5 oz) serving, cooked quinoa provides 120 calories and is an excellent source of manganese and phosphorus (30% and 22% DV, respectively), and a moderate source (10-19% DV) of dietary fiber, folate, and the dietary minerals, iron, zinc and magnesium. (bottom table).

Quinoa is gluten-free and considered easy to digest. Possibly related to these characteristics, it is an experimental crop in NASA's Controlled Ecological Life Support System for long-duration human occupied space flights.^[17]

Cultivation

Climate requirements

Harvested quinoa seeds

The plant's growth is highly variable due to a high complexity of different subspecies, varieties and landraces (domesticated plants or animals adapted to the environment in which they originated). However, in general it is undemanding and altitude-hardy. It is grown from coastal regions to over 4,000 m (13,000 ft) in the Andes near the equator, with most of the cultivars being grown between 2,500 m (8,200 ft) and 4,000 m (13,000 ft). Depending on the variety, optimal growing conditions are in cool climates with temperatures that vary between −4 °C (25 °F) during the night to near 35 °C (95 °F) during the day. Some cultivars can withstand lower temperatures without damage. Light frosts normally do not affect the plants at any stage of development, except during flowering. Mid-summer frosts during flowering, often occurring in the Andes, lead to sterilization of the pollen. Rainfall conditions are highly variable between the different cultivars, ranging from 300 to 1,000 mm (12 to 39 in) during growing season. Growth is optimal with well-distributed rainfall during early growth and development and dry conditions during seed maturation and harvesting.^[6]

Quinoa has been cultivated in the United States, primarily in the high elevation San Luis Valley (SLV) of Colorado where it was introduced in 1982. In this high-altitude desert valley, maximum summer temperatures rarely exceed 30 °C (86 °F) and night temperatures are about 7 °C (45 °F). Due to the short growing season, North American cultivation requires short-maturity varieties, typically of Bolivian origin.

Several countries within Europe, including France, England, Holland, Belgium, Germany and Spain now have successfully grown quinoa on a commercial scale.^[18] Within the UK, crops are grown as population and mechanically harvested in September.^[19]

Sowing

Quinoa plants do best in sandy, well-drained soils with a low nutrient content, moderate salinity, and a soil pH of 6 to 8.5. The seedbed must be well prepared and drained to avoid waterlogging.

Cultivation management

Yields are maximised when 170 to 200 kg (370 to 440 lb) N per hectare are available. The addition of phosphorus does not improve yield. In eastern North America, it is susceptible to a leaf miner that may reduce crop success and which also affects the common weed and close relative Chenopodium album, but C. album is much more resistant.

Harvesting and handling

Threshing quinoa in Peru

Quinoa grain is usually harvested by hand and rarely by machine, because the extreme variability of the maturity period of most Quinoa cultivars complicates mechanization. Harvest needs to be precisely timed to avoid high seed losses from shattering, and different panicles on the same plant mature at different times. The seed yield (often around 3 t/ha up to 5 t/ha) is comparable to wheat yields in the Andean areas. In the United States, varieties have been selected for uniformity of maturity and are mechanically harvested using conventional small grain combines. The plants are allowed to stand until they are dry and the grain has reached a moisture content below 10%. Handling involves threshing the seedheads and winnowing the seed to remove the husk. Before storage, the seeds need to be dried in order to avoid germination.^[6] Dry seeds can be stored raw until washed or mechanically processed to remove the pericarp to eliminate the bitter layer containing saponins.

History and culture

Early history

Quinoa was first domesticated by Andean peoples around 3,000 to 4,000 years ago.^[20] It has been an important staple in the Andean cultures where the plant is indigenous but relatively obscure in the rest of the world.^[21] The Incas, who held the crop to be sacred,^[22] referred to it as chisoya mama or "mother of all grains", and it was the Inca emperor who would traditionally sow the first seeds of the season using "golden implements".^[22] During the Spanish conquest of South America, the colonists scorned it as "food for Indians",^[23] and suppressed its cultivation, due to its status within indigenous religious ceremonies.^[24] The conquistadors forbade quinoa cultivation for a time^[25] and the Incas were forced to grow wheat instead.^[26]

Rising popularity and crop value

World Quinoa Production (thousand metric tons)

Country	1961	1970	1980	1990	2000	2010	2014
Peru	22.5	7.3	16.3	6.3	28.2	41.1	114.3
Bolivia	9.2	9.7	8.9	16.1	23.8	36.1	77.4
Ecuador	0.7	0.7	0.5	0.7	0.7	0.9	0.8
Total	32.4	17.7	25.8	23.0	52.6	78.1	192.5
Export price[27] USD/kg		$0.080	$0.492	$0.854	$1.254	$3.029
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) [28]

The grain has become increasingly popular in the United States, Canada, Europe, Australia, China and Japan where it is not typically grown, increasing crop value.^[29] Between 2006 and early 2013 quinoa crop prices tripled.^[30] In 2011, the average price was US$3,115 per ton with some varieties selling as high as $8,000 per ton.^[31] This compares with wheat prices of $9 per bushel (about $340 per ton). Since the 1970s, producers’ associations and cooperatives have worked toward greater producer control of the market. The higher prices make it harder for people to purchase, but also brings a livable income for farmers and enables many urban refugees to return to working the land.^[32]

The popularity of quinoa grain in non-indigenous regions has raised concerns over food security. Due to continued widespread poverty in regions where it is produced and because few other crops are compatible with the soil and climate in these regions, it has been suggested that the inflated price disrupts local access to food supplies.^[30] In 2013, The Guardian compared it to asparagus cultivated in Peru, a cash crop criticized for excessive water use,^[33] as "feeding our apparently insatiable 365-day-a-year hunger for this luxury vegetable[...]"^[30] It has been suggested that, as people rise above subsistence-level income, they choose higher-status Western processed foods. However, anthropologist Pablo Laguna states that farmers are still saving a portion of the quinoa crop for their own use, and that the high prices affect nearby city dwellers more, but consumption in cities has traditionally been lower. According to Laguna, the net benefit of increased revenue for farmers outweighs the costs, saying that it is "very good news for small, indigenous farmers".^[34] The transformation from a healthy staple food for farming families and communities into a product that is held to be worth too much to keep for oneself and one's family is an ongoing process. It is seen as a valuable resource that can bring in far greater amounts of cheap, low nutrient foods such as pasta and rice. It used to be seen as a peasant food that provided farming families with a very important source of nutrition, but now occupies a spectrum from an everyday food of urban Bolivia's middle class to a luxury food in the Peruvian capital of Lima where "it sells at a higher per pound price than chicken, and four times as much as rice".^[35] Efforts are being made in some areas to distribute it more widely and ensure that farming and poorer populations have access to it and have an understanding of its nutritional importance. These include incorporating it into free school breakfasts and in government provisions distributed to pregnant and nursing women in need.^[35]

Kosher controversy

Quinoa has become popular in the Jewish community as a substitute for the leavened grains that are forbidden during the Passover holiday. Several kosher certification organizations refuse to certify it as being kosher for Passover, citing reasons including its resemblance to prohibited grains or fear of cross-contamination of the product from nearby fields of prohibited grain or during packaging.^[36]

In December 2013, the Orthodox Union, the world's largest kosher certification agency, announced it would begin certifying quinoa as kosher for Passover.^[37]

International Year of Quinoa

Logo of International Year of Quinoa 2013

The United Nations General Assembly declared 2013 as the "International Year of Quinoa" ^[38][39][40] in recognition of ancestral practices of the Andean people, who have preserved it as food for present and future generations, through knowledge and practices of living in harmony with nature. The objective is to draw the world’s attention to the role that quinoa could play in providing food security, nutrition and poverty eradication, in support of achieving Millennium Development Goals.

Gallery

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  Quinoa

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  Quinoa plants

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  Quinoa flower

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  Developing black quinoa seed

See also

• Chia seed
• List of cereals

References

Further reading

• Pulvento C., M. Riccardi, A. Lavini, R. d’Andria, & R. Ragab (2013). "SALTMED Model to Simulate Yield and Dry Matter for Quinoa Crop and Soil Moisture Content Under Different Irrigation Strategies in South Italy.". Irrigation and drainage. 62: 229–238. doi:10.1002/ird.1727.  CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
• Cocozza C., C. Pulvento, A. Lavini, M.Riccardi, R. d’Andria & R. Tognetti (2012). "Effects of increasing salinity stress and decreasing water availability on ecophysiological traits of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.).". Journal of agronomy and crop science. 199: 229–240. doi:10.1111/jac.12012.  CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
• Pulvento C, Riccardi M, Lavini A, d'Andria R, Iafelice G, Marconi E (2010). "Field Trial Evaluation of Two Chenopodium quinoa Genotypes Grown Under Rain-Fed Conditions in a Typical Mediterranean Environment in South Italy". Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science. 196 (6): 407–411. doi:10.1111/j.1439-037X.2010.00431.x. 
• Pulvento, C., Riccardi, M., Lavini, A., Iafelice, G., Marconi, E. and d’Andria, R. (2012). "Yield and Quality Characteristics of Quinoa Grown in Open Field Under Different Saline and Non-Saline Irrigation Regimes". Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science. 198 (4): 254–263. doi:10.1111/j.1439-037X.2012.00509.x.  CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
• Gómez-Caravaca, G. Iafelice, A. Lavini, C. Pulvento, M.Caboni, E.Marconi (2012). "Phenolic Compounds and Saponins in Quinoa Samples (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Grown under Different Saline and Non saline Irrigation Regimens". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 60 (18): 4620–4627. doi:10.1021/jf3002125. PMID 22512450.  CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
• Romero, Simon; Shahriari, Sara (March 19, 2011). "Quinoa's Global Success Creates Quandary at Home". The New York Times. Retrieved July 22, 2012. 
• Geerts S, Raes D, Garcia M, Vacher J, Mamani R, Mendoza J, Huanca R, Morales B, Miranda R, Cusicanqui J, Taboada C (2008). "Introducing deficit irrigation to stabilize yields of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)". Eur. J. Agron. 28 (3): 427–436. doi:10.1016/j.eja.2007.11.008. 
• Geerts S, Raes D, Garcia M, Mendoza J, Huanca R (2008). "Indicators to quantify the flexible phenology of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in response to drought stress". Field Crop. Res. 108 (2): 150–6. doi:10.1016/j.fcr.2008.04.008. 
• Geerts S, Raes D, Garcia M, Condori O, Mamani J, Miranda R, Cusicanqui J, Taboada C, Vacher J (2008). "Could deficit irrigation be a sustainable practice for quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in the Southern Bolivian Altiplano?". Agric. Water Manage. 95 (8): 909–917. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2008.02.012. 
• Geerts S, Raes D, Garcia M, Taboada C, Miranda R, Cusicanqui J, Mhizha T, Vacher J (2009). "Modeling the potential for closing quinoa yield gaps under varying water availability in the Bolivian Altiplano". Agric. Water Manage. 96 (11): 1652–1658. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2009.06.020. 

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Chenopodium quinoa (category)

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Cookbook:Quinoa

Data related to Chenopodium quinoa at Wikispecies

Cereals and pseudocereals
Cereals	Gramineae   Barley   Fonio   Job's tears   Maize   Millets   Oats   Rice   Rye   Sorghum   Teff   Triticale   Zizania Wheat (Triticum)   Bread   Durum   Khorasan Red Fife Norin 10 Winter Farro   Einkorn   Emmer   Spelt
Pseudocereals	Polygonaceae   Buckwheat   Tartary buckwheat Amaranthaceae Amaranth   A. caudatus   A. cruentus   A. hypochondriacus   Celosia Chenopodiaceae   Quinoa   Pitseed Goosefoot   Qañiwa Lamiaceae   Chia Fabaceae Wattleseed Capparaceae Hanza
See also Triticeae Neolithic founder crops Neolithic Revolution History of agriculture Natufian culture Fertile Crescent Tell Abu Hureyra Tell Aswad Cereal cultivation History (french) Domestication Green Revolution Genetic engineering Selective breeding Crop wild relative