Qinghai

For other uses, see Qinghai (disambiguation).
This article is about Qinghai Province. For the ancient Tibetan province that covers the same region, see Amdo.
For the town in Zhejiang sometimes previously romanized as 'Ching-hai', see Zhenhai.
Qinghai Province
青海省
Province
Name transcription(s)
 • Chinese 青海省 (Qīnghǎi Shěng)
 • Abbreviation 青 (pinyin: Qīng)
Map showing the location of Qinghai Province
Map showing the location of Qinghai Province
Coordinates: 35°N 96°E / 35°N 96°E / 35; 96Coordinates: 35°N 96°E / 35°N 96°E / 35; 96
Named for Derived from the name of Qinghai Lake ("blue/green lake").
Capital
(and largest city)		 Xining
Divisions 8 prefectures, 43 counties, 429 townships
Government
 • Secretary Wang Guosheng
 • Governor Hao Peng
Area[1]
 • Total 720,000 km2 (280,000 sq mi)
Area rank 4th
Population (2010)[2]
 • Total 5,626,722
 • Rank 30th
 • Density 7.8/km2 (20/sq mi)
 • Density rank 30th
Demographics
 • Ethnic composition Han - 54%
Tibetan - 21%
Hui - 16%
Tu - 4%
Mongol - 1.8%
Salar - 1.8%
 • Languages and dialects Zhongyuan Mandarin-Chinese, Amdo Tibetan, Monguor, Oirat Mongolian, Salar, and Western Yugur
ISO 3166 code CN-63
GDP (2015) CNY 241.7 billion
US$ 38.8 billion (30th)
 • per capita CNY 41,252
US$ 6,623 (17th)
HDI (2010) 0.638[3] (medium) (27th)
Website http://www.qh.gov.cn/
(Simplified Chinese)
Qinghai

"Qinghai" in Chinese characters
Chinese name
Chinese 青海
Postal Tsinghai
Literal meaning "Azure Sea"
Tibetan name
Tibetan མཚོ་སྔོན་
Mongolian name
Mongolian script ᠬᠥᠬᠡ ᠨᠠᠭᠤᠷ
Manchu name
Romanization Huhu Noor
Oirat name
Oirat Kokonur

Qinghai (Chinese: 青海; pronounced [tɕʰíŋxài̯]), formerly known in English as Kokonur, is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northwest of the country. As one of the largest province-level administrative divisions of China by area, the province is ranked fourth-largest in size, but has the third-smallest population.

Located mostly on the Tibetan Plateau, the province has long been a melting pot for a number of ethnic groups including the Han, Tibetans, Hui, Tu, Mongols, and Salars. Qinghai borders Gansu on the northeast, Xinjiang on the northwest, Sichuan on the southeast, and the Tibet Autonomous Region on the southwest. Qinghai province was established in 1928 under the Republic of China period during which it was ruled by Chinese Muslim warlords known as the Ma clique. The Chinese name, "Qinghai" is named after Qinghai Lake (cyan sea lake), the largest lake in China. The province was known formerly as Kokonur in English, derived from the Oirat name for Qinghai Lake.

History

During China's Bronze Age, Qinghai was home to the Qiang people who traditionally made a living in agriculture and husbandry, the Kayue culture. The eastern part of the area of Qinghai was under the control of the Han dynasty about 2000 years ago. It was a battleground during the Tang and subsequent Chinese dynasties when they fought against successive Tibetan tribes.[4]

The Khoshut Khanate (1642–1717) based in the Tibetan Plateau.

In the middle of 3rd century CE, nomadic people related to the Mongolic Xianbei migrated to pasture lands around the Qinghai Lake (Koko Nur) and established the Tuyuhun Kingdom. In the 7th century, Tuyuhun Kingdom was attacked by both the Tibetan Empire and Tang dynasty as both of them sought control over trade routes. Military conflicts severely weakened the kingdom and it was incorporated into the Tibetan Empire. After the disintegration of the Tibetan Empire, small local factions emerged, some under the titular authority of China. The Song dynasty defeated the Tibetan Kokonor Kingdom in the 1070s.[5] During the Yuan dynasty's administrative rule of Tibet, the region comprising the headwaters of the Yellow and Yangtze rivers - what modern Tibetan nationalists call "Amdo" - was apportioned to different administrative divisions than Tibet proper.[6]

Most of Qinghai was once also a short time under the control of early Ming dynasty, but later gradually lost to the Khoshut Khanate founded by the Oirats. The Xunhua Salar Autonomous County is where most Salar people live in Qinghai. The Salars migrated to Qinghai from Samarkand in 1370.[7] The chief of the four upper clans around this time was Han Pao-yuan and Ming granted him office of centurion, it was at this time the people of his four clans took Han as their surname.[8] The other chief Han Shan-pa of the four lower Salar clans got the same office from Ming, and his clans were the ones who took Ma as their surname.[9]

From 1640 to 1724, a big part of the area that is now Qinghai was under Khoshut Mongol control, but in that year it was conquered by the armies of the Qing dynasty.[10] It was during the 1720s when Xining Prefecture was established and its borders were roughly those of modern Qinghai province. Xining, the capital of modern Qinghai province was built in this period as the administrative center. During the rule of the Qing dynasty, the governor was a viceroy of the Qing Emperor, but the local ethnic groups enjoyed much autonomy. Many chiefs retained their traditional authority, participating in local administrations.[11] The Dungan revolt (1862–77) devastated the Hui Muslim population of Shaanxi, shifting the Hui center of population to Gansu and Qinghai.[12]:405 Another Dungan revolt broke out in Qinghai in 1895 when various Muslim ethnic groups in Qinghai and Gansu rebelled against the Qing. Following the overthrow of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the region came under Chinese Muslim warlord Ma Qi control until the Northern Expedition by the Republic of China consolidated central control in 1928.

Chiang Kai-shek, leader of Nationalist China (right), meets with the Muslim Generals Ma Bufang (second from left), and Ma Buqing (first from left) in Xining, Qinghai in August 1942.

In July–August 1912, General Ma Fuxiang was "Acting Chief Executive Officer of Kokonur" (de facto Governor of the region that later became Qinghai).[13] In 1928, Qinghai province was created. Previously, it was part of Gansu, as the "Tibetan frontier district".[14][15] The Muslim warlord and General Ma Qi became military governor of Qinghai, followed by his brother Ma Lin (warlord) and then Ma Qi's son Ma Bufang. In 1932 Tibet invaded Qinghai, attempting to capture southern parts of Qinghai province, following contention in Yushu, Qinghai over a monastery in 1932. The army of Ma Bufang's defeated the Tibetan armies. Governor of Qinghai, Ma Bufang was described as a socialist by American journalist John Roderick and friendly compared to the other Ma Clique warlords.[16] Ma Bufang was reported to be good humoured and jovial in contrast to the brutal reign of Ma Hongkui.[17] Most of eastern China was ravaged by the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War, by contrast, Qinghai was relatively untouched.

Ma Bufang increased the prominence of the Hui and Salar people in Qinghai's politics by heavily recruiting to his army from the counties in which those ethnic groups predominated.[18] General Ma started a state run and controlled industrialization project, directly creating educational, medical, agricultural, and sanitation projects, run or assisted by the state. The state provided money for food and uniforms in all schools, state run or private. Roads and a theater were constructed. The state controlled all the press, no freedom was allowed for independent journalists.[19]

As the 1949 Chinese revolution approached Qinghai, Ma Bufang abandoned his post and flew to Hong Kong, traveling abroad but never returning to China. On January 1, 1950, the Qinghai Province People's Government was declared, owing its allegiance to the new People's Republic of China. Aside from some minor adjustments to suit the geography, the PRC maintained the province's territorial integrity.[20] Resistance to Communist rule continued in the form of the Huis' Kuomintang Islamic insurgency (1950-58), spreading past traditionally Hui areas to the ethnic-Tibetan south.[12]:408 Although the Hui comprised 15.6% of Qinghai's population in 1949, making the province the second-largest concentration of Hui after Ningxia, the state denied the Hui ethnic autonomous townships and counties that their numbers warranted under Chinese law until the 1980s.[12]:411

Geography

Satellite image of Qinghai.

Qinghai is located on the northeastern part of the Tibetan Plateau. The Yellow River originates in southern part of the province, while the Yangtze and Mekong have their sources in the southwestern part. Qinghai is separated by the Riyue Mountain into pastoral and agricultural zones in the west and east.[21]

The average elevation of Qinghai is over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) above sea level. Mountain ranges include the Tanggula Mountains and Kunlun Mountains, with the highest point being Bukadaban Feng at 6,860 metres (22,510 ft).[22] Due to the high altitude, Qinghai has quite cold winters (harsh in the highest elevations), mild summers, and a large diurnal temperature variation. Its mean annual temperature is approximately −5 to 8 °C (23 to 46 °F), with January temperatures ranging from −18 to −7 °C (0 to 19 °F) and July temperatures ranging from 15 to 21 °C (59 to 70 °F). It is also prone to heavy winds as well as sandstorms from February to April. Significant rainfall occurs mainly in summer, while precipitation is very low in winter and spring, and is generally low enough to keep much of the province semi-arid or arid.

By area, Qinghai is the largest province in the People's Republic of China (excluding the autonomous regions). Qinghai Lake is the largest salt water lake in China, and the second largest in the world. The Qaidam basin lies in the northwest part of the province. About a third of this resource rich basin is desert. The basin has an altitude between 3000 and 3500 meters.

The Sanjiangyuan National Nature Reserve, is located in Qinghai and contains the headwaters of the Yellow River, Yangtze River, and Mekong River. The reserve was established to protect the headwaters of these three rivers and consists of 18 subareas, each containing three zones which are managed with differing degrees of strictness.

Politics

Secretaries of the CPC Qinghai Committee
Order Name Chinese Name Governance period
1 Zhang Zhongliang 张仲良 1949–1954
2 Zhao Shoushan 赵寿山 1952
3 Gao Feng 高峰 1954–1961
4 Wang Zhao 王昭 1961–1962
5 Yang Zhilin 杨植霖 1962–1966
6 Liu Xianquan 刘贤权 1967–1977
7 Tan Qilong 谭启龙 1977–1979
8 Liang Buting 梁步庭 1979–1982
9 Zhao Haifeng 赵海峰 1982–1985
10 Yin Kesheng 尹克升 1985–1997
11 Tian Chengping 田成平 1997–1999
12 Bai Enpei 白恩培 1999–2001
13 Su Rong 苏荣 2001–2003
14 Zhao Leji 赵乐际 2003–2007
15 Qiang Wei 强卫 2007–2013
16 Luo Huining 骆惠宁 2013–2016
17 Wang Guosheng 王国生 2016-present
Governors of Qinghai
Order Name Chinese Name Governance period
1 Zhao Shoushan 赵寿山 1950–1952
2 Zhang Zhongliang 张仲良 1952–1954
3 Sun Zuobin 孙作宾 1954–1958
4 Sun Junyi 孙君一 1958
5 Yuan Renyuan 袁任远 1958–1962
6 Wang Zhao 王昭 1962–1967
7 Liu Xianquan 刘贤权 1967–1977
8 Tan Qilong 谭启龙 1977–1979
9 Zhang Guosheng 张国声 1979–1982
10 Huang Jingbo 黄静波 1982–1985
11 Song Ruixiang 宋瑞祥 1985–1989
12 Jin Jipeng 金基鹏 1989–1992
13 Tian Chengping 田成平 1992–1997
14 Bai Enpei 白恩培 1997–1999
15 Zhao Leji 赵乐际 1999–2003
16 Yang Chuantang 杨传堂 2003–2004
17 Song Xiuyan 宋秀岩 2004–2010
18 Luo Huining 骆惠宁 2010–2013
19 Hao Peng 郝鹏 2013–incumbent

Administrative divisions

Because the Han form Qinghai's ethnic majority,[21] and because none of its many ethnic minorities have clear dominance over the rest, the province is not administered as an autonomous region. Instead, the province has many ethnic autonomous areas at the district and county levels.[18] Qinghai is administratively divided into eight prefecture-level divisions: two prefecture-level cities and six autonomous prefectures:

Administrative divisions of Qinghai
№ Division code[23] English name Chinese Pinyin Area in km2[24] Population 2010[25] Seat Divisions[26]
Districts Counties* Aut. counties CL cities
  630000 Qinghai 青海省 Qīnghǎi Shěng 720000.00 5,626,722 Xining 6 27 7 3
3 630100 Xining 西宁市 Xīníng Shì 7424.11 2,208,708 Chengzhong District 4 2 1
4 630200 Haidong 海东市 Hǎidōng Shì 13043.99 1,396,846 Ledu District 2 4
2 632200 Haibei Tibetan
Autonomous Prefecture		 海北藏族自治州 Hǎiběi Zàngzú Zìzhìzhōu 33349.99 273,304 Haiyan County 3 1
6 632300 Huangnan Tibetan
Autonomous Prefecture		 黄南藏族自治州 Huángnán Zàngzú Zìzhìzhōu 17908.89 256,716 Tongren County 3 1
5 632500 Hainan Tibetan
Autonomous Prefecture		 海南藏族自治州 Hǎinán Zàngzú Zìzhìzhōu 43377.11 441,689 Gonghe County 5
8 632600 Golog Tibetan
Autonomous Prefecture		 果洛藏族自治州 Guǒluò Zàngzú Zìzhìzhōu 76442.38 181,682 Maqên County 6
7 632700 Yushu Tibetan
Autonomous Prefecture		 玉树藏族自治州 Yùshù Zàngzú Zìzhìzhōu 197953.70 378,439 Yushu 5 1
1 632800 Haixi Mongol and Tibetan
Autonomous Prefecture		 海西蒙古族藏族自治州 Hǎixī Měnggǔzú Zàngzú Zìzhìzhōu 300854.48 489,338 Delingha 3* 2
* - not including the administrative zones which are not registered under the Ministry of Civil Affairs (not included in the total Counties' count)

The eight prefecture-level divisions of Qinghai are subdivided into 43 county-level divisions (6 districts, 3 county-level cities, 27 counties, and 7 autonomous counties).

Economy

Oil well in Tsaidam (Qaidam), Qinghai

Qinghai's economy is amongst the smallest in all of China. Its nominal GDP for 2011 was just 163.4 billion RMB (US$25.9 billion) and contributes to about 0.35% of the entire country's economy. Per capita GDP was 19,407 RMB (US$2,841), the second lowest in China.[27]

Its heavy industry includes iron and steel production, located near its capital city of Xining. Oil and natural gas from the Qaidam Basin have also been an important contributor to the economy.[27] Salt works operate at many of the province's numerous salt lakes.

Outside of the provincial capital, Xining, most of Qinghai remains underdeveloped. Qinghai ranks second lowest in China in terms of highway length, and will require a significant expansion of its infrastructure to capitalize on the economic potential of its rich natural resources.[27]

Economic and Technological Development Zones

Xining Economic & Technological Development Zone (XETDZ) was approved as state-level development zone in July 2000. It has a planned area of 4.4 square kilometres (1.7 sq mi). XETDZ lies in the east of Xining, 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) away from downtown. Located in the east of the province, Xining stands at the upper reaches of the Huangshui River-one of the Yellow River's branches. The city is surrounded by the mountains with an average elevation of 2261 meters and the highest at 4393 meters. Xining Economic and Technological Development Zone (XETDZ) is the first of its kind at the national level on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. It is established to fulfill the nation's strategy of developing the west.

XETDZ enjoys a convenient transportation system, connected by the Xining-Lanzhou expressway and run through by two main roads, the broadest roads of the city. It is 4 kilometers away from the railway station, 15 kilometers from Xi'ning Airport, a grade 4D airport with 14 airlines to other cities such as Beijing, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Chengdu and Xi'an. Xining is Qinghai province's passage to the outside world, a transportation center with more than ten highways, over one hundred roads and two railways, Lanzhou-Qinghai and Qinghai-Tibet Railways in and out of the city.

It focuses on the development of following industries: chemicals based on salt lake resources, nonferrous metals, and petroleum and natural gas processing; special medicine, foods and bio-chemicals using local plateau animals and plants; new products involving ecological and environmental protection, high technology, new materials as well as information technology; and services such as logistics, banking, real estate, tourism, hotel, catering, agency and international trade.[28]

Demographics

The Dongguan Mosque in Qinghai
Historical population
YearPop.±%
1912[29] 368,000—    
1928[30] 619,000+68.2%
1936-37[31] 1,196,000+93.2%
1947[32] 1,308,000+9.4%
1954[33] 1,676,534+28.2%
1964[34] 2,145,604+28.0%
1982[35] 3,895,706+81.6%
1990[36] 4,456,946+14.4%
2000[37] 4,822,963+8.2%
2010[38] 5,626,722+16.7%

There are over 37 recognized ethnic groups among Qinghai's population of 5.2 million, with national minorities making up 46.5% of the population. The demographic mix is similar to Gansu province, with Han (54.5%), Tibetan (20.7%), Hui (16%), Tu (Monguor) (4%), Mongol, and Salar being the most populous groups. Han Chinese predominate in the cities of Xining, Haidong, Delingha and Golmud, and elsewhere in the northeast. The Hui are concentrated in Xining, Haidong, Minhe County, Hualong County, and Datong County. The Tu people predominate in Huzhu County and the Salars in Xunhua County; Tibetans and Mongols are sparsely distributed across the rural western part of the province.[18]

Of the Muslim ethnic groups in China, Qinghai has communities of Hui, Salar, Dongxiang, and Bao'an.[7] The Hui dominate the wholesale business in Qinghai.[39] Both the indigenous Han and Tibetan people in Qinghai differ from their co-ethnics outside of the province; the Han in Qinghai are more devoutly Buddhist and influenced by Tibetan customs, while the Tibetans may not speak Tibetan and are more integrated into mainstream Chinese culture.[18][21] Qinghai Tibetans regard themselves as distinct from Tibetans in the Tibet Autonomous Region,[21] and celebrate their region's unbroken independence from Lhasa's control since the fall of the Tubo Empire.[18]

Religion

Religion in Qinghai (2000s)

  Chinese religion, Buddhism, Tibetan religion or not religious populations (81.73%)
  Islam[40] (17.51%)
  Christianity[41] (0.76%)

The predominant religions in Qinghai are Chinese folk religions (including Taoist traditions and Confucianism) and Chinese Buddhism among the Han Chinese. The large Tibetan population practices Tibetan schools of Buddhism or Tibetan folk religion and shamanism, while the Hui Chinese practice Islam. Christianity is the religion of 0.76% of the province's population according to the Chinese General Social Survey of 2004.[41] According to a survey of 2010, 17.51% of the population of Qinghai follow Islam.[40]

A Taoist temple dedicated to Jiutian Xuannü on Mount Fenghuang, in Lunmalong village, Duoba, Xining.
A Buddhist temple on Riyue Mountain, in Huangyuan County, Xining.
Mosques and Chinese temples characterising the skyline of Huangyuan County.
Rongwo Tibetan Buddhist Monastery in Tongren County.
Great Mosque of Duoba, Xining.

Culture

Qinghai has been influenced by the interactions "between Mongol and Tibetan culture, north to south, and Han Chinese and Inner Asia Muslim culture, east to west".[18] The languages of Qinghai have for centuries formed a Sprachbund, with Zhongyuan Mandarin, Amdo Tibetan, Salar, Yugur, and Monguor borrowing from and influencing one another.[42] In mainstream Chinese culture, Qinghai is most associated with the Tale of King Mu, Son of Heaven.[43] According to this legend, King Mu of Zhou (r. 976–922 BCE) pursued hostile Quanrong nomads to eastern Qinghai, where the goddess Xi Wangmu threw the king a banquet in the Kunlun Mountains.[44]

The main religions in Qinghai are Tibetan Buddhism and Islam. The Dongguan Mosque has been continuously operating since 1380.[12]:402 Measures of education in Qinghai are low, particularly among the Muslim ethnic groups such as the Hui and Salar, who sometimes prefer to send their children to madrasahs rather than secular schools.[18] The yak, which is native to Qinghai, is widely used in the province for transportation and its meat.[21] The Mongols of Qinghai celebrate the Naadam festival on the Qaidam Basin every year.[45]

Transportation

The Lanqing Railway, running between Lanzhou, Gansu and Xining, the province's capital, was completed in 1959 and is the major transportation route in and out of the province. A continuation of the line, the Qinghai-Tibet Railway via Golmud and western Qinghai, has become one of the most ambitious projects in PRC history. It was completed in October 2005 and now links Tibet with the rest of China through Qinghai.

Construction on the Golmud–Dunhuang Railway, in the province's northwestern part, started in 2012.

Six National Highways run through the province.

Xining Caojiabu Airport provides service to Beijing, Lanzhou, Golmud and Delingha. Smaller regional airports, Delingha Airport, Golog Maqin Airport, Huatugou Airport, Qilian Airport and Yushu Batang Airport, serve some of the local centers of the far-flung province; plans exist for the construction of three more by 2020.[46]

Telecommunications

Since the Ministry of Information Industry began its "Access to Telephones Project", Qinghai has invested 640 million yuan to provide telephone access to 3860 out its 4133 administrative villages. At the end of 2006, 299 towns had received Internet access. However, 6.6 percent of villages in the region still have no access to the telephone. These villages are mainly scattered in Qingnan Area, with 90 percent of them located in Yushu and Guoluo. The average altitude of these areas exceeds 3600 meters, and the poor natural conditions hamper the establishment of telecommunication facilities in the region.

Satellite phones have been provided to 186 remote villages in Qinghai Province as of September 14, 2007. The areas benefited were Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and Guoluo Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture. Qinghai has recently been provided with satellite telephone access. In June 2007, China Satcom carried out an in-depth survey in Yushu and Guoluo, and made a special satellite phones for these areas. Two phones were provided to each village for free, and calls were charged at the rate of 0.2 yuan per minute for both local and national calls, with the extra charges assumed by China Satcom. No monthly rent was charged on the satellite phone. International calls were also available.

Tourism

Qinghai Lake from space, November 1994.

Many tourist attractions center on Xining, the provincial seat of Qinghai.

During the hot summer months, many tourists from the hot Southern and Eastern parts of China travel to Xining, as the climate of Xining in July and August is quite mild and comfortable, making the city an ideal summer retreat.

Qinghai Lake (青海湖, qīnghǎi hú) is another tourist attraction, albeit further from Xining than Kumbum Monastery (Ta'er Si). The lake is the largest saltwater lake in China, and is also located on the "Roof of the World," the Tibetan Plateau. The lake itself lies at 3,600m elevation. The surrounding area is made up of rolling grasslands and populated by ethnic Tibetans. Most pre-arranged tours stop at Bird Island (鸟岛, niǎo dǎo). An international bicycle race takes place annually from Xining to Qinghai Lake.

Colleges and universities

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Qinghai Province". Ministry of Commerce of Qinghai Province. Retrieved 5 August 2013.
  2. ↑ "Communiqué of the National Bureau of Statistics of People's Republic of China on Major Figures of the 2010 Population Census [1] (No. 2)". National Bureau of Statistics of China. 29 April 2011. Archived from the original on July 27, 2013. Retrieved 4 August 2013.
  3. ↑ 《2013中国人类发展报告》 (PDF) (in Chinese). United Nations Development Programme China. 2013. Retrieved 2014-05-14.
  4. ↑ Purdue - Tibetan history.
  5. ↑ Leung 2007, p. 57.
  6. ↑ Smith, Warren W (2009). China's Tibet?: Autonomy or Assimilation. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 24, 252.
  7. 1 2 Betta, Chiara (2004). The Other Middle Kingdom: A Brief History of Muslims in China. Indianapolis University Press. p. 21.
  8. ↑ William Ewart Gladstone, Baron Arthur Hamilton-Gordon Stanmore (1961). Gladstone-Gordon correspondence, 1851-1896: selections from the private correspondence of a British Prime Minister and a colonial Governor, Volume 51. American Philosophical Society. p. 27. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  9. ↑ William Ewart Gladstone, Baron Arthur Hamilton-Gordon Stanmore (1961). Gladstone-Gordon correspondence, 1851-1896: selections from the private correspondence of a British Prime Minister and a colonial Governor, Volume 51. American Philosophical Society. p. 27. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  10. ↑ The Times Atlas of World History. (Maplewood, New Jersey: Hammond, 1989) p. 175
  11. ↑ M.C. Goldstein (1994). Barnett and Akiner, ed. Change, Conflict and Continuity among a community of nomadic pastoralists—A Case Study from western Tibet, 1950-1990., Resistance and Reform in Tibet. London: Hurst & Co.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Cooke, Susette. "Surviving State and Society in Northwest China: The Hui Experience in Qinghai Province under the PRC." Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 28.3 (2008): 401-420.
  13. ↑ Henry George Wandesforde Woodhead, Henry Thurburn Montague Bell (1969). The China year book, Part 2. North China Daily News & Herald. p. 841. Retrieved 2011-06-05.
  14. ↑ Louis M. J. Schram (2006). The Monguors of the Kansu-Tibetan Frontier: Their Origin, History, and Social Organization. Kessinger Publishing. p. 17. ISBN 1-4286-5932-3. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  15. ↑ Graham Hutchings (2003). Modern China: a guide to a century of change (illustrated, reprint ed.). Harvard University Press. p. 351. ISBN 0-674-01240-2. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  16. ↑ John Roderick (1993). Covering China: the story of an American reporter from revolutionary days to the Deng era. Imprint Publications. p. 104. ISBN 1-879176-17-3. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  17. ↑ Felix Smith (1995). China pilot: flying for Chiang and Chennault. Brassey's. p. 140. ISBN 1-57488-051-9. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Goodman, David (2004). China's Campaign to "Open Up the West": National, Provincial, and Local Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–83.
  19. ↑ Werner Draguhn, David S. G. Goodman (2002). China's communist revolutions: fifty years of the People's Republic of China. Psychology Press. p. 38. ISBN 0-7007-1630-0. Retrieved 2011-04-09.
  20. ↑ Blondeau, Anne-Marie; Buffetrille, Katia (2008). Authenticating Tibet: Answers to China's 100 Questions. University of California Press. pp. 203–205. It is often assumed that this current policy [of not politically uniting all ethnically Tibetan areas] reflects the PRC leadership's intention to divide and rule Tibet, but this assumption is not wholly accurate…. The PRC cemented the [historical] status quo by keeping Amdo/Qinghai as a separate, multinational province… China does not reverse perceived territorial acquisitions. Hence, all territories that escaped the domination of Lhasa in recent history remained attached to the neighboring Chinese constituencies they tended to be under the influence of.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 Lahtinen, Anja (2009). "Maximising Opportunities for the Tibetans of Qinghai Province, China". In Cao, Huahua. Ethnic Minorities and Regional Development in Asia: Reality and Challenges. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 20–22.
  22. ↑ Bukadaban Feng, Peakbagger.com
  23. ↑ "中华人民共和国县以上行政区划代码". 中华人民共和国民政部.
  24. ↑ 深圳市统计局. 《深圳统计年鉴2014》. 深圳统计网. 中国统计出版社. Retrieved 2015-05-29.
  25. ↑ shi, Guo wu yuan ren kou pu cha ban gong; council, Guo jia tong ji ju ren kou he jiu ye tong ji si bian = Tabulation on the 2010 population census of the people's republic of China by township / compiled by Population census office under the state; population, Department of; statistics, employment statistics national bureau of (2012). Zhongguo 2010 nian ren kou pu cha fen xiang, zhen, jie dao zi liao (Di 1 ban. ed.). Beijing Shi: Zhongguo tong ji chu ban she. ISBN 978-7-5037-6660-2.
  26. ↑ 中华人民共和国民政部 (2014.08). 《中国民政统计年鉴2014》. 中国统计出版社. ISBN 978-7-5037-7130-9. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. 1 2 3 Qinghai Province: Economic News and Statistics for Qinghai's Economy
  28. ↑ RightSite.asia | Xining Economic & Technological Development Zone
  29. ↑ "1912年中国人口". Retrieved 6 March 2014.
  30. ↑ "1928年中国人口". Retrieved 6 March 2014.
  31. ↑ "1936-37年中国人口". Retrieved 6 March 2014.
  32. ↑ "1947年全国人口". Retrieved 6 March 2014.
  33. ↑ "中华人民共和国国家统计局关于第一次全国人口调查登记结果的公报". National Bureau of Statistics of China. Archived from the original on August 5, 2009.
  34. ↑ "第二次全国人口普查结果的几项主要统计数字". National Bureau of Statistics of China. Archived from the original on September 14, 2012.
  35. ↑ "中华人民共和国国家统计局关于一九八二年人口普查主要数字的公报". National Bureau of Statistics of China. Archived from the original on May 10, 2012.
  36. ↑ "中华人民共和国国家统计局关于一九九〇年人口普查主要数据的公报". National Bureau of Statistics of China. Archived from the original on June 19, 2012.
  37. ↑ "现将2000年第五次全国人口普查快速汇总的人口地区分布数据公布如下". National Bureau of Statistics of China. Archived from the original on August 29, 2012.
  38. ↑ "Communiqué of the National Bureau of Statistics of People's Republic of China on Major Figures of the 2010 Population Census". National Bureau of Statistics of China. Archived from the original on July 27, 2013.
  39. ↑ "Demand for an aphrodisiac has brought unprecedented wealth to rural Tibet—and trouble in its wake". The Economist. 19 December 2015. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
  40. 1 2 Min Junqing. The Present Situation and Characteristics of Contemporary Islam in China. JISMOR, 8. 2010 Islam by province, page 29. Data from: Yang Zongde, Study on Current Muslim Population in China, Jinan Muslim, 2, 2010.
  41. 1 2 China General Social Survey (CGSS) 2009. Report by: Xiuhua Wang (2015, p. 15) Archived September 25, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
  42. ↑ Janhunen, Juha (2006). "From Manchuria to Amdo Qinghai: On the Ethnic Implications of the Tuyuhun Migration". Tumen Jalafun Jecen Aku. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 111–112.
  43. ↑ "Qinghai". English Channel. CCTV. Retrieved 2013-06-05.
  44. ↑ Asiapac Editorial (2006). Chinese History: Ancient China to 1911. Asiapac Books. p. 28.
  45. ↑ "Qaidam culture shines in Qinghai, NW China". Global Times. 2009-07-21. Retrieved 2013-06-05.
  46. ↑ Qinghai to build 3 new airports before 2020
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