Somali Armed Forces

Somali Armed Forces Xoogga Dalka Soomaaliyeed القوات المسلحة الصومالية
Emblem of the Somali Armed Forces
Founded	1960
Service branches	Somali National Army[1] Somali Air Force[1] Somali Navy[1]
Headquarters	Mogadishu, Somalia
Leadership
Commander-in-Chief	Hassan Sheikh Mohamud
Minister of Defense	Abdulkadir Sheikh Dini
Chief of Army	Mohamed Adam Ahmed
Manpower
Military age	18
Available for military service	2,260,175 (2010 est.; males) 2,159,293 (2010 est.; females), age 18–49
Fit for military service	1,331,894 (2010 est.; males) 1,357,051 (2010 est.; females), age 18–49
Reaching military age annually	101,634 (2010 est.; males) 101,072 (2010 est.; females)
Active personnel	20,000[2]
Expenditures
Percent of GDP	0.9% (2005)
Industry
Foreign suppliers	European Union  United States Gulf states  Turkey

The Somali National Armed Forces (SNAF) are the military forces of Somalia, officially known as the Federal Republic of Somalia.^[3] Headed by the President as Commander in Chief, they are constitutionally mandated to ensure the nation's sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity.^[4]

The SAF was initially made up of the Army, Navy, Air Force and Police Force.^[5] In the post-independence period, it grew to become among the larger militaries in Africa.^[6] Due to patrimonial and repressive state policies, the military had by 1988 begun to disintegrate.^[7] By the time dictator Siad Barre fled in 1991, the armed forces had dissolved.^[8] As of January 2014, the security sector is overseen by the Federal Government of Somalia's Ministry of Defence, Ministry of National Security, and Ministry of Interior and Federalism.^[9] The Somaliland, Puntland and Khaatumo regional governments maintain their own security and police forces.

History

Middle Ages to colonial period

Historically, Somali society conferred distinction upon warriors (waranle) and rewarded military acumen. All Somali males were regarded as potential soldiers, except for the odd religious cleric (wadaado).^[10] Somalia's many Sultanates each maintained regular troops. In the early Middle Ages, the conquest of Shewa by the Ifat Sultanate ignited a rivalry for supremacy with the Solomonic dynasty.

Many similar battles were fought between the succeeding Sultanate of Adal and the Solomonids, with both sides achieving victory and suffering defeat. During the protracted Ethiopian-Adal War (1529–1559), Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi defeated several Ethiopian Emperors and embarked on a conquest referred to as the Futuh Al-Habash ("Conquest of Abyssinia"), which brought three-quarters of Christian Abyssinia under the power of the Muslim Adal Sultanate.^[11][12] Al-Ghazi's forces and their Ottoman allies came close to extinguishing the ancient Ethiopian kingdom, but the Abyssinians managed to secure the assistance of Cristóvão da Gama's Portuguese troops and maintain their domain's autonomy. However, both polities in the process exhausted their resources and manpower, which resulted in the contraction of both powers and changed regional dynamics for centuries to come. Many historians trace the origins of hostility between Somalia and Ethiopia to this war.^[13] Some scholars also argue that this conflict proved, through their use on both sides, the value of firearms such as the matchlock musket, cannons and the arquebus over traditional weapons.^[14]

At the turn of the 20th century, the Majeerteen Sultanate, Sultanate of Hobyo, Warsangali Sultanate and Dervish State employed cavalry in their battles against the imperialist European powers during the Campaign of the Sultanates.

In Italian Somaliland, eight "Arab-Somali" infantry battalions, the Ascari, and several irregular units of Italian officered dubats were established. These units served as frontier guards and police. There were also Somali artillery and zaptié (carabinieri) units forming part of the Italian Royal Corps of Colonial Troops from 1889 to 1941. Between 1911 and 1912, over 1,000 Somalis from Mogadishu served as combat units along with Eritrean and Italian soldiers in the Italo-Turkish War.^[15] Most of the troops stationed never returned home until they were transferred back to Italian Somaliland in preparation for the invasion of Ethiopia in 1935.^[16]

In 1914, the Somaliland Camel Corps was formed in the British Somaliland protectorate and saw service before, during, and after the Italian invasion of the territory during World War II.^[10]

1960 to 1991

Just prior to independence in 1960, the Trust Territory of Somalia established a national army to defend the nascent Somali Republic's borders. A law to that effect was passed on 6 April 1960. Thus the Somali Police Force's Mobile Group (Darawishta Poliska or Darawishta) was formed. 12 April 1960 has since been marked as Armed Forces Day.^[17] British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as the State of Somaliland, and the Trust Territory of Somalia (the former Italian Somaliland) followed suit five days later.^[18] On 1 July 1960, the two territories united to form the Somali Republic.^[19]

After independence, the Darawishta merged with the former British Somaliland Scouts to form the 5,000 strong Somali National Army.^[20] The new military's first commander was Colonel Daud Abdulle Hirsi, a former officer in the British military administration's police force, the Somalia Gendarmerie.^[10] Officers were trained in the United Kingdom, Egypt and Italy. Despite the social and economic benefits associated with military service, the armed forces began to suffer chronic manpower shortages only a few years after independence.^[21]

Merging British Somaliland Italian Somaliland caused political controversy. The distribution of power between the two regions and among the major clans in both areas was a bone of contention. In December 1961, a group of British-trained northern non-commissioned officers in Hargeisa revolted after southern officers took command of their units.^[22] The rebellion was put down by other northern Noncommissioned officers (NCOs), although dissatisfaction in the north lingered.^[23]

The force was expanded and modernized after the rebellion with the assistance of Soviet and Cuban advisors. The Library of Congress writes that '[i]n 1962 the Soviet Union agreed to grant a US$32 million loan to modernise the Somali army, and expand it to 14,000 personnel. Moscow later increased the amount to US$55 million. The Soviet Union, seeking to counter United States influence in the Horn of Africa, made an unconditional loan and fixed a generous twenty-year repayment schedule.'

The army was tested in 1964 when the conflict with Ethiopia over the Somali-inhabited Ogaden erupted into warfare. On 16 June 1963, Somali guerrillas started an insurgency at Hodayo, in eastern Ethiopia, a watering place north of Werder, after Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie rejected their demand for self-government in the Ogaden. The Somali government initially refused to support the guerrilla forces, which eventually numbered about 3,000. However, in January 1964, after Ethiopia sent reinforcements to the Ogaden, Somali forces launched ground and air attacks across the border and started providing assistance to the guerrillas. The Ethiopian Air Force responded with punitive strikes across its southwestern frontier against Feerfeer, northeast of Beledweyne and Galkayo. On 6 March 1964, Somalia and Ethiopia agreed to a cease-fire. At the end of the month, the two sides signed an accord in Khartoum, Sudan, agreeing to withdraw their troops from the border, cease hostile propaganda, and start peace negotiations. Somalia also terminated its support of the guerrillas.^[10]

During the power vacuum that followed the assassination of Somalia's second president, Abdirashid Ali Shermarke, the military staged a coup d'état on 21 October 1969 (the day after Shermarke's funeral) and took over office.^[24] Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, who had succeeded Hersi as Chief of Army in 1965,^[10] was installed as President of the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC), the new government of Somalia.^[24] The country was renamed the Somali Democratic Republic. In 1971, he announced the regime's intention to phase out military rule.

In 1972, the National Security Court, headed by admiral Mohamed Gelle Yusuf, ordered the execution of Siad Barre's fellow coup instigators, Major General Mohamed Aynanshe Guleid (who had become the Vice President), Brigadier General Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Lieutenant Colonel Abdulkadir Dheel Abdulle.^[25]

The U.S. Army Area Handbook wrote in 1976:^[26]

In mid-1976 the military command structure was simple and direct. Major General Samantar was not only commander of the National Army – and therefore commander of the organizationally subordinated navy and air force- but also secretary of state for defence and a vice president of SRC and thus a member of the major decision-making body of the government. Holding the two highest.. posts, he stood alone in the command structure between the army and President Siad, the head of state. When in July 1976 the SRC relinquished its power to the newly appointed SSRP, Samantar retained the portfolio of the Ministry of Defense. The country's real power appeared to be in the SSRP's Politburo, of which Samantar became a vice president. Before the military coup, command channels ran directly from the commander of the National Army to army sector commanders who exercised authority over military forces.. in the field, and by 1986 combat units had been reorganized along Soviet lines. There is no indication that either the chain of command to lower echelons or the organisation of combat units has changed significantly since the coup.

In July 1976, the International Institute for Strategic Studies estimated the army consisted of 22,000 personnel, 6 tank battalions, 9 mechanised infantry battalions, 5 infantry battalions, 2 commando battalions, and 11 artillery battalions (5 anti-aircraft).^[27] Two hundred T-34 and 50 T-54/55 main battle tanks had been estimated to have been delivered. The IISS emphasised that 'spares are short and not all equipment is serviceable.' The U.S. Army Area Handbook for Somalia, 1977 edition, agreed that the army comprised six tank and nine mechanised infantry battalions, but listed no infantry battalions, the two commando battalions, and 10 total artillery (five field and five anti-aircraft) battalions. (Kaplan et al., DA Pam 550-86, Second Edition, 1977, p. 315)

Three divisions (the 21st, 54th, and 60th)^[28] were formed, and later took part in the Ogaden War. While the IISS did not list them in July 1976, there is evidence that they were formed as early as 1970 or earlier: Mohamud Muse Hersi has been listed by somaliaonline.com as commander of the 21st Division from 1970 to 1972,^[29] and Muse Hassan Sheikh Sayid Abdulle as commander 26th Division in 1970–71.

Under the leadership of General Abdullah Mohamed Fadil, Abdullahi Ahmed Irro and other senior Somali military officials formulated a plan of attack for what was to become the Ogaden War in Ethiopia.^[30] This was part of a broader effort to unite all of the Somali-inhabited territories in the Horn region into a Greater Somalia (Soomaaliweyn).^[31] At the start of the offensive, the SNA consisted of 35,000 soldiers,^[32] and was vastly outnumbered by the Ethiopian forces. Somali national army troops seized the Godey Front on 24 July 1977, after the 60th Division defeated the Ethiopian 4th Infantry Division.^[33] Godey's capture allowed the Somali side to consolidate its hold on the Ogaden, concentrate its forces, and advance further to other regions of Ethiopia.^[34] The invasion reached an abrupt end with the Soviet Union's sudden shift of support to Ethiopia, followed by almost the entire communist world siding with the latter. The Soviets halted supplies to Barre's regime and instead increased the distribution of aid, weapons, and training to Ethiopia's newly communist Derg regime. General Vasily Ivanovich Petrov was assigned to restructure the Ethiopian Army.^[35] The Soviets also brought in around 15,000 Cuban troops to assist the Ethiopian military. By 1978, the Somali forces were pushed out of most of the Ogaden, although it would take nearly three more years for the Ethiopian Army to gain full control of Godey.^[34]

Following the 1977–78 Ogaden campaign, Abudwak became the base for the SNA's 21st Division.^[36]

The shift in support by the Soviet Union motivated the Barre regime to seek allies elsewhere. It eventually settled on Russia's Cold War arch-rival, the United States, which had been courting the Somali government for some time. The U.S. eventually gave extensive military support. Following the disastrous Ogaden War, Barre's government began arresting government and military officials under suspicion of participation in the abortive 1978 coup d'état.^[30][37] Most of the people who had allegedly helped plot the putsch were summarily executed.^[38] However, several officials managed to escape abroad where they formed the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), the first of various dissident groups dedicated to ousting Barre's regime by force.^[39] Among these opposition movements were the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM) and Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA), a Gadabuursi group which had been formed in the northwest to counter the Somali National Movement (SNM) Isaaq militia.^[40]

In 1981 one of three corps headquarters for the ground forces was situated at Hargeisa in the northwestern Woqooyi Galbeed region. Others were believed to be garrisoned at Gaalkacyo in the north-central Mudug region and at Beled Weyne in the south-central Hiiraan region. The ground forces were tactically organized into seven divisions. Allocated among the divisions were three mechanized infantry brigades, ten anti-aircraft battalions, and thirteen artillery battalions.^[5]

In 1984, the government attempted to solve the manpower shortage problem by instituting obligatory military service.^[21] Men of eighteen to forty years of age were to be conscripted for two years. Opposition to conscription and to the campaigns against guerrilla groups resulted in widespread evasion of military service. As a result, during the late 1980s the government normally met manpower requirements by impressing men into military service. This practice alienated an increasing number of Somalis, who wanted the government to negotiate a peaceful resolution of the conflicts that were slowly destroying Somali society.

However, as the 1980s wore on, Siad Barre increasingly used clanism as a political resource.^[41] Barre filled the key positions in the army and security forces with members of three Darood clans closely related to his own reer: the Marehan, Dulbahantes, and Ogaadeens.^[42] Compagnon wrote in 1992: "Colonels and generals were part of the president's personal patronage network; they had to remain loyal to him and his relatives, whether they had command or were temporarily in the cabinet."^[43] As a result, by 1990 many Somalis looked upon the armed forces as Siad Barre's personal army. This perception eventually destroyed the military's reputation as a national institution. The critical posts of commander of the 2nd Tank Brigade and 2nd Artillery Brigade in Mogadishu were both held by Marehan officers, as were the posts of commander of the three reserve brigades in Hargeisa in the north.^[44]

By 1987 the U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency estimated the army was 40,000 strong (with Ethiopian army strength estimated at the same time as 260,000).^[45] The President, Mohamed Siad Barre, held the rank of Major General and acted as Minister of Defence. There were three vice-ministers of national defence. From the SNA headquarters in Mogadishu four sectors were directed: 26th Sector at Hargeisa, 54th Sector at Garowe, 21st Sector at Dusa Mareb, and 60th Sector at Baidoa. Thirteen divisions, averaging 3,300 strong, were divided between the four sectors – four in the northernmost and three in each of the other sectors. The sectors were under the command of brigadiers (three) and a colonel (one). Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan has been reported as 26th Sector commander from 1986 to 1988. Walter S. Clarke seemed to say that Barre's son [Maslah Siad] was commanding the 77th Sector in Mogadishu in November 1987.^[46]

By the mid-1980s, more resistance movements supported by Ethiopia's communist Derg administration had sprung up across the country. Barre responded by ordering punitive measures against those he perceived as locally supporting the guerillas, especially in the northern regions. The clampdown included bombing of cities, with the northwestern administrative center of Hargeisa, a Somali National Movement (SNM) stronghold, among the targeted areas in 1988.^[47]

Compagnon writes that:^[48]

From the summer of 1988 onwards, there was a combination of political repression against targeted clans and private use of violence by predatory units and individuals of the former 'national' armed forces – already in the process of disintegration – who used their power to rape, kill, and loot freely. The ..distinction between private illegitimate violence and public coersion disappeared. Many former military men later joined the clan militias or the armed gangs.

Military exercises between the United States and the Siad Barre regime continued during the 1980s. 'Valiant Usher '86' took place during the U.S. fiscal year of 1986, but actually in late 1985, and the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit participated in Exercise Eastern Wind in August 1987 in the area of Geesalay.^[49] U.S. Army elements conducted training with the Somali 31st Commando Brigade at Baledogle Airfield outside Mogadishu in 1989.^[50]

As of 1 June 1989, the International Institute for Strategic Studies estimated that the Army comprised four corps and 12 division headquarters.^[51] At the time, the military had decreased considerably in size.^[52] The IISS noted that these formations 'were in name only; below establishment in units, men, and equipment. Brigades were of battalion size.'^[51] Units and formations listed in 1990 within six military sectors included the twelve divisions, four tank brigades, 45 mechanized and infantry brigades, 4 commando brigades, 1 surface-to-air missile brigade, 3 field artillery brigades, 30 field battalions, and one air defence artillery battalion.^[53]

In mid-November 1989, rebel forces briefly captured the Mudug province's capital Galkayo, Human Rights Watch reported in September 1990. They reportedly seized significant quantities of military equipment at the 4th Division Headquarters, including tanks, 30 mobile anti-aircraft guns and rocket launchers. However, the rebels were unable to take most of this equipment so they incinerated it. Government forces thereafter launched massive reprisals against civilians residing in the regions corresponding with the 21st, 54th, 60th and 77th military sectors. The impacted towns and villages included Gowlalo, Dagaari, Sadle-Higlo, Bandiir Adley, Galinsor, Wargalo, Do'ol, Halimo, Go'ondalay and Galkayo.^[54]

The various rebel movements eventually succeeded in ousting the government altogether in the ensuing civil war that broke out in 1991. The Somali National Army and all related military and security forces finally dissolved.^[8] In 1992, the 15-member Security Council imposed an arms embargo via United Nations Security Council Resolution 733 in order to stop the flow of weapons to feuding militia groups.^[55] Much equipment was left in situ, deteriorating, and was sometimes discovered and photographed by intervention forces in the early 1990s.

Transitional period

It was reported on November 7, 2001, that Transitional National Government (TNG) military forces had seized control of Marka in Lower Shabelle.^[56] From 2002, Ismail Qasim Naji served as the TNG military chief.^[57] He was given the rank of Major General. The TNG's new army, made up of 90 women and 2,010 men, was equipped on 21 March 2002 with guns and armed wagons surrendered to the TNG by private parties in exchange for money, according to TNG officials. TNG president Abdulkassim Salat Hassan instructed the recruits to use the weaponry to "pacify Mogadishu and other parts of Somalia by fighting bandits, anarchists and all forces that operate for survival outside the law." But the TNG controlled only one part of Mogadishu; rival warlords controlled the remainder.^[58] Some TNG weapons were stolen and looted in late 2002.^[59] During this time, the TNG was opposed militarily and politically by the rival Somalia Reconciliation and Restoration Council (SRRC).

Eventually the leadership of the SRRC and the TNG were reconciled, and the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) was formed in 2004 by Somali politicians in Nairobi. Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed from Puntland was elected as President.^[60][61] The TFG later moved its temporary headquarters to Baidoa.^[60] President Yusuf requested that the African Union deploy military forces in Somalia. However, as the AU lacked the resources to do so, Yusuf brought in his own militia from Puntland. Along with the U.S. funding the ARPCT coalition, this alarmed many in south-central Somalia, and recruits flocked to the ascendant Islamic Courts Union (ICU).^[62]

A battle for Mogadishu followed in the first half of 2006 in which the ARPCT confronted the ICU.^[63] However, with local support, the ICU captured the city in June of the year. It then expanded its area of control in south-central Somalia over the following months, assisted militarily by Eritrea.^[62] In an effort at reconciliation, TFG and ICU representatives held several rounds of talks in Khartoum under the auspices of the Arab League. The meetings ended unsuccessfully due to uncompromising positions retained by both parties.^[60] Hardline Islamists subsequently gained power within the ICU, prompting fears of a Talibanization of the movement.^[64]

In December 2006, Ethiopian troops entered Somalia to assist the TFG against the advancing Islamic Courts Union,^[65] initially winning the Battle of Baidoa. On 28 December 2006, the allied forces recaptured the capital from the ICU.^[66] The offensive helped the TFG solidify its rule.^[63] Ethiopian and TFG forces forced the ICU from Ras Kamboni between 7–12 January 2007. They were assisted by at least two U.S. air strikes.^[67] On 8 January 2007, for the first time since taking office, President Ahmed entered Mogadishu from Baidoa as the TFG moved its base to the national capital.^[68] President Ahmed brought his Puntland army chief with him, and Abdullahi Ali Omar became Somali chief of army on 10 February 2007.^[69]

On 20 January 2007, with United Nations Security Council Resolution 1744, the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) was formally authorised, making it possible to securely assure the government's presence in Mogadishu.^[70] Seven hundred Ugandan troops, earmarked for AMISOM, were landed at Mogadishu airport on 7–8 March 2007.^[71]

In Mogadishu, Hawiye residents resented the Islamic Courts Union's defeat.^[72] They distrusted the TFG, which was at the time dominated by individuals from the Darod clan, believing that it was dedicated to the advancement of Darod interests in lieu of the Hawiye. Additionally, they feared reprisals for massacres committed in 1991 in Mogadishu by Hawiye militants against Darod civilians, and were dismayed by Ethiopian involvement.^[73] Critics of the TFG likewise charged that its federalist platform was part of a plot by the Ethiopian government to keep Somalia weak and divided.^[74] During its first few months in the capital, the TFG was initially restricted to key strategic points, with the large northwestern and western suburbs controlled by Hawiye rebels.^[75] In March 2007, President Ahmed announced plans to forcibly disarm militias in the city.^[73] According to the ISA, a coalition of local insurgents led by Al-Shabaab subsequently launched a wave of attacks against the TFG and Ethiopian troops.^[76] The allied forces in return mounted a heavy-handed response.^[77]

All of the warring parties were responsible for widespread violations of the laws of war, as civilians were caught in the ensuing crossfire. Insurgents reportedly deployed militants and established strongholds in heavily populated neighborhoods, launched mortar rounds from residential areas, and targeted public and private individuals for assassination and violence.^[76] TFG forces alleged to have failed to efficaciously warn civilians in combat zones, impeded relief efforts, plundered property, in some instances engaged in murder and violence, and mistreated detainees during mass arrests.^[76][78] According to HRW, the implicated TFG forces included military, police and intelligence personnel, as well as the private guards of senior TFG officials. Victims were often unable to identify TFG personnel, and confused militiamen aligned with TFG officials with TFG police officers and other state security personnel.^[78]

In December 2008, the International Crisis Group reported:^[79]

Yusuf has built a largely subservient and loyal apparatus by putting his fellow Majerteen clansmen in strategic positions. The National Security Agency (NSA) under General Mohamed Warsame (“Darwish”) and the so-called “Majerteen militia” units in the TFG army operate in parallel and often above other security agencies. Their exact number is hard to ascertain, but estimates suggest about 2,000.^[80] They are well catered for, well armed and often carry out counter-insurgency operations with little or no coordination with other security agencies. In the short term, this strategy may appear effective for the president, who can unilaterally employ the force essentially as he pleases. However, it undermines morale in the security services and is a cause of their high desertion rates.

Much of the problem building armed forces was the lack of functioning TFG government institutions:^[81]

Beyond the endemic internal power struggles, the TFG has faced far more serious problems in establishing its authority and rebuilding the structures of governance. Its writ has never extended much beyond Baidoa. Its control of Mogadishu is ever more contested, and it is largely under siege in the rest of the country. There are no properly functioning government institutions.

Also in December 2008, Human Rights Watch described the Somali National Army as the 'TFG's largely theoretical professional military force.' It said that 'where trained TFG military forces appear, 'they were identified by their victims as Ethiopian-trained forces, often acting in concert with ENDF (Ethiopian National Defense Force) forces or under the command of ENDF officers.'^[82] HRW also said that 'Human Rights Watch's own research has uncovered a pattern of violent abuses by TFG forces including widespread acts of murder, rape, looting, assault, arbitrary arrest and detention, and torture. Those responsible include police, military, and intelligence personnel as well as the personal militias of high-ranking TFG officials.'^[82]

HRW went on to say: 'The TFG has deployed a confusing array of security forces and armed militias to act on its behalf. Victims of the widespread abuses in which these forces have been implicated often have trouble identifying whether their attackers were TFG police officers, other TFG security personnel, or militias linked to TFG officials. Furthermore, formal command-and-control structures are to a large degree illusory. TFG security forces often wear multiple hats, acting on orders from their formal superiors one day, as clan militias another day, and as autonomous self-interested armed groups the next.'^[82]

In April 2009, donors at a UN-sponsored conference pledged over $250 million to help improve security. The funds were earmarked for AMISOM and supporting Somalia's security, including the build-up of a security force of 6,000 members as well as an augmented police force of 10,000 men.^[83] In June 2009, the Somali military received 40 tonnes worth of arms and ammunition from the U.S. government to assist it in combating the insurgency.^[84]

In November 2010, a new technocratic government was elected to office. In its first 50 days in office, the new administration completed its first monthly payment of stipends to government soldiers.^[85] It was the first of many Somali administrations to announce plans for a full biometric register for the security forces. While it aimed to complete the biometric register within four months, little further was reported. By August 2011, AMISOM and Somali forces had managed to capture all of Mogadishu from Al-Shabaab.^[86]

In October 2011, following a weekend preparatory meeting between Somali and Kenyan military officials in the town of Dhobley,^[87] the Kenya Defence Forces launched an attack across the border against Al-Shabaab, aiming for Kismayo.^[88][89] In early June 2012, Kenyan troops were formally integrated into AMISOM.^[90]

In January 2012, Somali government forces and their AMISOM allies launched offensives on Al-Shabaab's last foothold on the northern outskirts of Mogadishu.^[91] The following month, Somali forces fighting alongside AMISOM seized Baidoa from the insurgent group.^[92] By June 2012, the allied forces had also captured El Bur,^[93] Afgooye,^[94] and Balad.^[95] Progress by the Kenya Army from the border towards Kismayo was slow, but Afmadow was also reported captured on 1 June 2012.^[96]

Federal period

The Federal Government of Somalia was established in August/September 2012. On 6 March 2013, United Nations Security Council Resolution 2093 was passed. The resolution lifted the purchase ban on light weapons for a provisional period of one year, but retained restrictions on the procurement of heavy arms such as surface-to-air missiles, howitzers and cannons.^[55]

On 13 March 2013, Dahir Adan Elmi was appointed Chief of Army at a transfer ceremony in Mogadishu, where he replaced Abdulkadir Sheikh Dini. Abdirisaq Khalif Hussein was appointed as Elmi's new Deputy Chief of Army.^[97]

In August 2013, Federal Government of Somalia officials and Jubaland regional representatives signed an agreement in Addis Ababa brokered by the Government of Ethiopia, which said that all Jubaland security elements will be integrated within the Somali National Army. The Juba Interim Administration would control the regional police.^[98]

In November 2013, UNSOA (United Nations Support Office for AMISOM) was required by the UNSC to support the SNA across South Central Somalia. Their mandate consisted in consolidating and training a force of 10,900 Somalis, officially to fight al Shabab forces.^[99] The SNA force would initially be trained by the AMISOM contingents. On the passing of specific UN requirements,^[100] designated SNA battalions would then participate in joint operations with AMISOM. UNSOA's support during the period comprised food supplements, shelter, fuel, water and medical support.^[101]

In early March 2014, Somali security forces and AMISOM troops launched another operation to remove Al-Shabaab from the remaining areas in southern Somalia under its control.^[102] According to Prime Minister Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed, the government subsequently launched stabilization efforts in the newly liberated areas, which included Rab Dhuure, Hudur, Wajid and Burdhubo. However, there were continuing concerns that not enough was being done to revitalise and secure the newly liberated areas. By 26 March, the allied forces had liberated ten towns within the month, including Qoryoley and El Buur.^[103][104] UN Special Representative for Somalia Nicholas Kay described the military advance as the most significant and geographically extensive offensive since AU troops began operations in 2007.^[105]

In August 2014, the Somali government launched Operation Indian Ocean.^[106] On 1 September 2014, a U.S. drone strike carried out as part of the broader mission killed Al-Shabaab leader Moktar Ali Zubeyr.^[107] U.S. authorities hailed the raid as a major symbolic and operational loss for Al-Shabaab, and the Somali government offered a 45-day amnesty to all moderate members of the militant group.^[108]

In October 2014, Federal Government officials signed an agreement in Garowe with Puntland, which said that the Federal and Puntland authorities will work to form an integrated national army.^[109] In April 2015, another bilateral treaty stipulated that Puntland would contribute 3,000 troops to the Somali National Army.^[110] In May 2015, President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud and the heads of the Puntland, Jubaland and Interim South West Administrations signed a seven-point agreement in Garowe authorizing the immediate deployment of 3,000 troops from Puntland for the Somali National Army.^[111] The leaders also agreed to integrate soldiers from the other regional states into the SNA.^[112]

In 2016 The Economist reported that the SNA did not exist as a cohesive force due to high rates of desertions and many soldiers being primarily loyal to clan leaders rather than the government.^[113]

Somali National Army from 2008

Training and facilities

In November 2009, the European Union announced its intention to train two Somali battalions (around 2,000 troops), which would complement other training missions and bring the total number of better-trained Somalian soldiers to 6,000.^[114] The two battalions were expected to be ready by August 2011.^[115] In April 2011, 1,000 recruits completed training in Uganda as a part of the agreement with the EU.^[116]

Powerful vested interests and corrupt commanders were, as of February 2011, the largest obstacle to reforming the army. Some newly delivered weaponry was sold by officers. The International Crisis Group also said that AMISOM's efforts at assisting in formalizing the military's structure and providing training to the estimated 8,000 SNA soldiers were problematic. Resistance continued to the establishment of an effective chain of command, logical military formations and a credible troop roster. Although General Mohamed Gelle Kahiye, the respected former army chief, attempted to instill reforms, he was marginalized and eventually dimissed.^[117]

In August 2011, as part of the European Union Training Mission Somalia (EUTM Somalia), 900 Somali soldiers graduated from the Bihanga Military Training School in the Ibanda District of Uganda.^[118][119] 150 personnel from the EU took part in the training process, which trained around 2,000 Somali troops per year.^[119] In May 2012, 603 Somali army personnel completed training at the facility. They were the third batch of Somali nationals to be trained there under the auspices of EUTM Somalia.^[120] In total, the EU mission had trained 3,600 Somali soldiers, before permanently transferring all of its advisory, mentoring and training activities to Mogadishu in December 2013.^[121]

In September 2011, President Sharif Sheikh Ahmed laid down the foundation for a new military camp for the army in the Jazeera District of Mogadishu. The $3.2 million construction project was funded by the EU and was expected to take six months to complete.^[122]

In June 2013, Egyptian engineers arrived to build new headquarters for the Somalia Ministry of Defence.^[123]

In February 2014, EUTM Somalia began its first "Train the Trainers" programme at the Jazeera Training Camp in Mogadishu. 60 Somali National Army soldiers that had been previously trained by EUTM in Uganda would take part in a four-week refresher course on infantry techniques and procedures, including international humanitarian law and military ethics. The training would be conducted by 16 EU trainers. Following the course's completion, the Somali soldiers would be qualified as instructors to then train SNA recruits, with mentoring provided by EUTM Somalia personnel.^[124] A team of EUTM Somalia advisors also started offering strategic advice to the Somali Ministry of Defence and General Staff. Additionally, capacity building, advice and specific mentoring with regard to security sector development and training are envisioned for 2014.^[125]

In February 2014, Chief of Staff Brigadier General Dahir Adan Elmi announced that Somalia's Ministry of Defence began holding military training inside the country for the first time, with Somali instructors now teaching courses to units that joined the armed forces. He also indicated that SNA leaders had created new numbered units for the army, and that the soldiers were slated to have their respective name and unit placed on their uniform. Additionally, Elmi stated that the military had implemented a new biometric registration system, wherein each recently trained and armed soldier is photographed and fingerprinted.^[126] By the end of 2014, 17,000 national army soldiers and police officers had registered for the new biometric remuneration system.^[127] 13,829 SNA soldiers and 5,134 Somali Police Force officials were biometrically registered in the system as of May 2015.^[128]

In July 2014, the governments of the United States and France announced that they would start providing training to the Somali National Army.^[129] According to U.S. Defense Department officials, American military advisers are also stationed in Somalia.^[130]

In September 2014, 20 Somalian federal soldiers began training courses in Djibouti, which were organized by the government of Djibouti.^[131]

In September 2014, a Somali government delegation led by Prime Minister Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed attended an international conference in London hosted by the British government, which centered on rebuilding the Somali National Army and strengthening the security sector in Somalia. Ahmed presented to the participants his administration's plan for the development of Somalia's military, as well as fiscal planning, human rights protection, arms embargo compliance, and ways to integrate regional militias. The summit also aimed to increase financial support for the Somali military. British Prime Minister David Cameron in turn indicated that the meeting sought to outline a long-term security plan to strengthen Somalia's army, police and judiciary.^[132]

In March 2015, the Federal Cabinet agreed to establish a new commission tasked with overseeing the nationalization and integration of security forces in the country.^[133] In April 2015, the Commission on Regional Militia Integration presented its plan for the formal integration of regional forces, with UNSOM providing support and strategic advice.^[128]

In April 2015, the federal Ministry of Defence launched its new Guulwade Plan (Victory Plan), which provides a roadmap for long-term development of the military. It was formulated with technical support from UNSOM. The framework stipulates that international partners are slated to provide capacity-building as well as assistance for joint operations to 10,900 Somali national army troops, with these units drawn from various regions in the country.^[128]

As of April 2015, UNSOM coordinates international security sector assistance for the SNA in accordance with the Somali federal government's priority areas. It also provides advice on recruitment of female officers, strictures on age appropriate military personnel, legal frameworks vis-a-vis the defence institutions, and a development strategy for the Ministry of Defence. Beginning in the month, the US government also funded the payment of 9,495 army allowances.^[128]

In May 2015, President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud officially opened a new military training camp in Mogadishu. Construction of the center began in 2014 in conjunction with the government of the United Arab Emirates. Situated in the Hodan district, it is one of several new military academies in the country.^[134]

As of May 2015, the federal government in conjunction with UNSOM was working toward establishing a comprehensive, international standards and obligations-compliant ammunition and weapons management system. To this end, capacity-building for the physical management of arms and bookkeeping was being developed, and new storage facilities and armouries for weapons and explosives were being constructed.^[128]

Strength and units

In August 2011, the TFG announced the creation of a new Special Force. Consisting of 300 trained soldiers, the unit was initially mandated with protecting relief shipments and distribution centers in Mogadishu. Besides helping to stabilize the city, the protection force is also tasked with combating banditry and other vices.^[135]

In March 2013 there were six trained brigades around Mogadishu, two of which were deployed at the time. Each brigade includes three to six battalions of around 1000 soldiers apiece, or 18,000 to 36,000 troops in total. Of these, an estimated 6,000 to 12,000 soldiers are currently in service.^[136]

According to the UN Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea, the six SNA brigades around Mogadishu were as of July 2013 largely composed of officers from various Hawiye sub-clans, with some Marehan-Darod and minorities also present in certain units. Of the brigades, five primarily consisted of Abgaal, Murosade and Hawadle soldiers. In February 2013 the 2nd Brigade was under the command of Brigadier General Abdullahi Osman Agey. The 3rd Brigade over the same period comprised 840 fighters, most of whom belong to the Hawiye-Habar Gidir/Ayr clan. The unit was around 30% to 50% smaller in size than the other five brigades that are garrisoned in the larger Banaadir region. Led by General Mohamed Roble Jimale 'Gobale', it occupied an area outside of Mogadishu and Merka and along the Afgoye corridor. The Monitoring Group reported that many 3rd Brigade fighters had been drawn from around 300-strong militias controlled by Yusuf Mohamed Siyaad 'Indha Adde', a close associate of Jimale and the former Eritrean-backed chief of defence for the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia-Asmara. However, Siyaad was by then no longer part of the SNA's official military structures.^[137]

As of May–June 2014, the army reportedly consists of an estimated 20,000 soldiers. Of these, the majority are men, with around 1,500 female SNA officials.^[2]

The Fifth Brigade was identified in reporting about a New Zealand UN advisor.^[138] Later, on June 9, 2014, Garowe Online referred to the Fifth and Sixth Brigades of the SNA, in Lower Shabelle.^[139] The 5th and 6th Brigades have played a pivotal role in the battle against Al-Shabaab, including in Mogadishu and Afgoye. With a post-training drop-out rate of around 10%, the vast majority of the EUTM-trained soldiers have continued to serve in the Somalia national security forces after their initial period of training abroad, and their units have remained intact. The standard of the EUTM-trained troops is regarded as being high relative to the brigades around Mogadishu. Overall, the Somali armed forces' combat capability has strengthened due in part to having both more combat experience and international support, including training, leadership and planning facilitation.^[140]

In February 2014, the Federal Government concluded a six-month training course for the first Commandos, Danab ("Lightning"), since 1991.^[141] Training had been jointly carried out by Somali military experts and U.S. government personnel. The Army Chief of Staff Brigadier General Dahir Adan Elmi said that the new Commandos hail from different parts of the county. The Commandos will be headquartered at the former Balli Dogle air base (Walaweyn District, Lower Shebelle).^[141] The training of the first Danab unit had begun in October 2013, and included 150 soldiers. As of July 2014, training of the second unit was underway. According to General Elmi, the special training is geared toward both urban and rural environments, and is aimed at preparing the soldiers for guerrilla warfare and all other types of modern military operations. Elmi said that a total of 570 Commandos are expected to have completed training by U.S. security personnel by the end of 2014.^[130]

Guulwade [Victory] Plan

On 26 March 2015, the Defence Working Group under the New Deal structure held its first meeting since November 2014. Discussions focused on the Guulwade (Victory) Plan of the Federal Government, developed with technical assistance from UNSOM. The plan outlines the Somali national army’s arms and equipment needs for improved joint operations, consistent with the AMISOM concept of operations, and provides a framework for the first phase of longer-term development of the national army. The plan was presented by the Ministry of Defence and endorsed at the meeting of the Working Group on Peacebuilding and State-building Goal 2 (security) in Mogadishu on 23 April 2015.^[142][143]

Under the Guulwade Plan, a total of 10,900 national army troops, comprising units from the regions, would receive support from international partners for participation in joint operations with AMISOM and capacity-building as part of development of the army. The figure does not include the 3,000 troops from Puntland due to be integrated into the national army, which are fighting Al-Shabaab in the Galgalo mountains. Alternative arrangements will be needed to enable those troops to receive international support.^[142]

Special Forces

The Danab ("Lightning") Special operations Battalion is part of the elite Somali National Army component that also includes the Commando Brigade which is also headquartered in Balidogle, Somalia It has been established to conduct special operations, covert operations, special reconnaissance, counter intelligence, counter terrorism, counter insurgency, amphibious and asymmetric warfare in and outside Somalia.

This force of Somalia’s National Army is trained to strike with precision, targeting the country’s hot spots and terrorism targets, fashioned after the U.S. Army’s Delta Force or Navy SEALs.^[144]

Somali special forces are subordinated under the MOD Special Operations Command to a brigade-level command structure.

Agreements

Somalia has signed military cooperation agreements with Turkey in May 2010,^[145] February 2014,^[146] and January 2015.^[147]

In February 2012, Somali Prime Minister Abdiweli Mohamed Ali and Italian Defence Minister Gianpaolo Di Paola agreed that Italy would assist the Somali military as part of the National Security and Stabilization Plan (NSSP),^[148] an initiative designed to strengthen and professionalize the national security forces.^[149] The agreement would include training soldiers and rebuilding the Somali army.^[148] In November 2014, the Federal Parliament approved a new defense and cooperation treaty with Italy, which the Ministry of Defence had signed earlier in the year. The agreement includes training and equipping of the army by Italy.^[150]

In November 2014, Somalia signed a military cooperation agreement with the United Arab Emirates.^[151]

Turkey has signed an agreement with Somalia, to open its first military base in Africa in which Turkish military officers will train Somali soldiers and troops from other African countries to fight against Al-Shabaab terrorist organization. The base, which has been approved by the United Nations, will be Turkey's second military base abroad and will be set up in capital Mogadishu. With the agreement between the Turkish and Somali governments, over 1,500 Somali troops will be trained by 200 Turkish military officers, the Turkish army is also planning to build a military school in Somalia to train officers.

"This military training center will also be an important base to provide military training to all of Africa," Emil Tekin, an official from the Turkish Foreign Ministry said.

Army equipment

Army equipment, 1981

The following were the Somali National Army's major weapons in 1981:^[5]

Type	Description	Country of Manufacture	Inventory
Tanks
Centurion	Main battle tank; 105mm gun	United Kingdom	40
T-34	Medium tank; 85mm gun	Soviet Union	60
T-54/55	Main battle tank; 100mm quick firing gun; most transferred 1974–1976	Soviet Union	40
Armoured personnel carriers
BTR-40	9-passenger wheeled APC	Soviet Union	50
BTR-50	12-passenger tracked APC	Soviet Union
BTR-60	10-12-passenger wheeled APC	Soviet Union
BTR-152	12-passenger wheeled APC	Soviet Union	150
Fiat 6614	10-passenger wheeled APC	Italy	200
Fiat 6616	Armored car; 20mm gun	Italy
Artillery
130mm	Field gun, towed	Soviet Union	80
122mm	Field gun, towed	Soviet Union
122mm	Howitzer, towed	Soviet Union
100mm	Anti-tank gun/field gun, towed	Soviet Union	150
85mm	Anti-tank gun, towed	Soviet Union
76mm	Divisional gun, towed	Soviet Union
120mm	Heavy mortar	Soviet Union	n/a
82mm	Medium mortar	Soviet Union	n/a
106mm	B-11 recoilless rifle	China	n/a
Anti-aircraft guns
100 mm air defense gun KS-19	Towed	Soviet Union	250
57 mm AZP S-60	Towed	Soviet Union
37mm M1939	Towed	Soviet Union
23mm	ZU-23-2-type, towed	Soviet Union
Missiles
MILAN	Surface-to-surface, man-portable, anti-tank guided weapon	France/West Germany	100

Army equipment, 1989

Previous arms acquisitions included the following equipment, much of which was unserviceable ca. June 1989:^[51] 293 main battle tanks (30 Centurion from Kuwait^[152] 123 M47 Patton, 30 T-34, 110 T-54/55 from various sources). Other armoured fighting vehicles included 10 M41 Walker Bulldog light tanks, 30 BRDM-2 and 15 Panhard AML-90 armored cars (formerly owned by Saudi Arabia). The IISS estimated in 1989 that there were 474 armoured personnel carriers, including 64 BTR-40/BTR-50/BTR-60, 100 BTR-152 wheeled armored personnel carriers, 310 Fiat 6614 and 6616s, and that BMR-600s had been reported. The IISS estimated that there were 210 towed artillery pieces (8 M-1944 100mm, 100 M-56 105mm, 84 M-1938 122mm, and 18 M198 155 mm towed howitzers). Other equipment reported by the IISS included 82mm and 120mm mortars, 100 Milan and BGM-71 TOW anti-tank guided missiles, rocket launchers, recoilless rifles, and a variety of Soviet air defence guns of 20mm, 23mm, 37mm, 40mm, 57mm, and 100mm calibre. As of 1 June 1989, the IISS also estimated that Somali army surface-to-air defense equipment included 40 SA-2 Guideline missiles (operational status uncertain), 10 SA-3 Goa, and 20 SA-7 surface-to-air missiles.^[51]

Army equipment, 2012–2015

In May 2012, over thirty-three vehicles were donated by the U.S. government to the SNA. The vehicles include 16 Magirus Trucks, 4 Hilux Pickups, 6 Land Cruiser Pickups, 1 Water Tanker, and 6 Water Trailers.^[153] On 9 April 2013, the U.S. government approved the provision of defense articles and services by the American authorities to the Somali Federal Government.^[154] It handed over 15 vehicles to the new Commandos in March 2014.^[155]

In April 2013, Djibouti presented the SNA with 15 armoured military vehicles. The equipment was part of a larger consignment of 25 military trucks and 25 armoured military vehicles.^[156]

The same month, the Italian government handed over 54 armored and personnel carrier vehicles to the army at a ceremony in Mogadishu.^[157]

As of April 2015, the Ministry of Defence's Guulwade Plan identifies the equipment and weaponry requirements of the army.^[128]

Somali Air Force

The Somali Air Force (SAF) was originally named the Somali Air Corps (SAC), and was established with Italian aid in the early 1960s. It emerged from the Italian "Corpo di Sicurezza della Somalia" that existed between 1950 and 1960, during the trusteeship period just prior to independence. The SAF's original equipment included eight North American P-51D Mustangs, Douglas C-47s and MiG 23s, which remained in service until 1968. The air force operated most of its aircraft from bases near Mogadishu, Hargeisa and Galkayo. An air defence force equipped with Soviet surface-to-air missiles and anti-aircraft guns was in existence by 1992.^[158]

By January 1991 the air force was in ruins.^[8] In 2012, Italy offered to help rebuild the air force.

According to CQ Press' Worldwide Government Directory with Intergovernmental Organizations, Somalia's reconstituted air force as of 2013 is led by Maj. Gen. Nur Ilmi Adawe.^[1]

Somali Navy

The Somali Navy was formed after independence in 1960. Prior to 1991, it participated in several joint exercises with the United States, Great Britain and Canada. It disintegrated during the beginning of the civil war in Somalia, from the late 1980s.^[10] In the 2000s (decade), the central government began the process of re-establishing the Somali Navy.^[159]

On 30 June 2012, the United Arab Emirates announced a contribution of $1 million toward enhancing Somalia's naval security. Boats, equipment and communication gear necessary for the rebuilding of the coast guard would be bought. A central operations naval command was also planned to be set up in Mogadishu.^[160]

Leadership

Minister of Defence

Name	Tenure	Affiliation
Abdulkadir Sheikh Dini	27 January 2015 – Present	Federal Government of Somalia (FGS)
Mohamed Sheikh Hassan	17 January 2014 – 27 January 2015	Federal Government of Somalia (FGS)
Abdihakim Mohamoud Haji-Faqi	4 November 2012 – 17 January 2014	Federal Government of Somalia (FGS)
Hussein Arab Isse	20 July 2011 – 4 November 2012	Transitional Federal Government (TFG)
Abdihakim Mohamoud Haji-Faqi	12 November 2010 – 20 July 2011	Transitional Federal Government (TFG)
Mohamed Abdi Mohamed	21 February 2009 – 12 November 2010	Transitional Federal Government (TFG)
Aden Abdullahi Nur	1986–1988	Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP)
Muhammad Ali Samatar	1980–1986	Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP)

Chief of Army

Name	Took command	Left command
Maj. Gen Ismail Qasim Naji	14 April 2005[161]	10 February 2007[69]
Maj. Gen Abdullahi Ali Omar	10 February 2007[69]	21 July 2007[162]
Brig. Gen Salah Hassan Jama	21 July 2007[162]	11 June 2008[163]
Maj. Gen Said Dheere Mohamed	11 June 2008[163]	15 May 2009[164]
Maj. Gen Yusuf Osman Dhumal	15 May 2009[164]	10 December 2009[165]
Brig. Gen Mohamed Gelle Kahiye	6 December 2009[165]	18 September 2010[166]
Brig. Gen Ahmed Jimale Gedi	18 September 2010	28 March 2011
Maj. Gen Abdulkadir Sheikh Dini	28 March 2011[167]	13 March 2013[168]
Brig. Gen Dahir Adan Elmi	13 March 2013[168]	3 September 2015 (S/2015/801, p. 24)
Maj. Gen Mahamed Aadan Ahmed	– - 2015[168]	continue (S/2015/802, p. 24)

Military ranks

In July 2014, General Dahir Adan Elmi announced the completion of a review of the Somali National Army ranks. The SNA in conjunction with the Ministry of Defense is also slated to standardize the martial ranking system and eliminate any unauthorized promotions as part of a broader reform.^[169]

As of 1977, Somalia's army ranks were as follows:^[5]

Level	Rank	Commission	Notables
1	Lieutenant General	Officer	Muhammad Ali Samatar
2	Major General	Officer	Daud Abdulle Hirsi, Siad Barre, Xuseen Kulmiye Afrax, Abdullah Mohamed Fadil, Cabdulle Barre Qalaaye, Nuur Darawish, Salaad Gabeyre Kediye, Axmed Maxamuud Cadde (Qoorweyne), Maxamed Sheekh Cismaan, Abuukar Gacal, Abubakar Sulaleey
3	Brigadier General	Officer	Ali Matan Hashi, Abdullahi Ahmed Irro, Ali Ismail Mohamed, Mohamed Farah Aidid, Muse Hassan Sheikh Sayid Abdulle, Osman Mohamed Samatar Fatiig, Dahir Adan Elmi, Abdulkadir Sheikh Dini, Axmed Sahal Ali (Axmed Cariiri), Abuukar Aftooje, Cismaan Badmaceeye, Isaaq Iidow Raagge, Maxamed Cismaan Faarax (Gaarac)
4	Colonel	Officer	Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, Mohamed Osman Irro, Jibrell Ali Salad
5	Lieutenant colonel	Officer	Salaad Gabeyre Kediye
6	Major	Officer
7	Captain	Officer
8	First Lieutenant	Officer
9	Second Lieutenant	Officer
10	Chief Warrant Officer	NCO
11	Warrant Officer III	NCO
12	Warrant Officer II	NCO
13	Warrant Officer I	NCO
14	Sergeant	NCO
15	Corporal	NCO
16	Private First Class	NCO

Notes

References

• Defense Intelligence Agency, 'Military Intelligence Summary, Vol IV, Part III, Africa South of the Sahara', November 1987
• International Crisis Group, Somalia: The Transitional Government on Life Support, Africa Report 170, 20 February 2011.
• Human Rights Watch, Human Rights Abuses by Transitional Federal Government Forces in 'So Much to Fear: War Crimes and Devastation in Somalia', December 2008
• Library of Congress Somalia Country Study 1992
• Abdullah A. Mohamoud, State collapse and post-conflict development in Africa : the case of Somalia (1960–2001). West Lafayette, Ind. : Purdue University Press, c2006 (DT407 M697 S).
• Williams, Paul D. "Into the Mogadishu maelstrom: the African Union mission in Somalia." International Peacekeeping 16.4 (2009): 514–530.

Further reading

• Adam, Hussein M. "Somalia: Personal Rule, Military Rule and Militarism." The Military and Militarism in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA (1998): 355–97.
• Baffour Agyeman-Duah, The Horn of Africa: Conflict, Demilitarization and Reconstruction, Journal of Conflict Studies, Vol. 16, No. 2, 1996, accessed at https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/JCS/article/view/11813/12632#a50
• Brian Crozier, The Soviet Presence in Somalia, Institute for the Study of Conflict, London, 1975
• Irving Kaplan, Area Handbook for Somalia, American University, 1969 and 1977.
• Nilsson, Claes, and Johan Norberg, "European Union Training Mission Somalia: A Mission Assessment", Swedish National Defence Research Institute, 2014.
• Robinson, Colin (2016). "Revisiting the rise and fall of the Somali Armed Forces, 1960–2012". Defense & Security Analysis. 32 (3): 237–252. doi:10.1080/14751798.2016.1199122. 

External links

• Anderson, Jon Lee (14 December 2009). "The Most Failed State". The New Yorker. Retrieved 18 May 2015.  – includes notes on state of Somali Navy
• Air Combat Information Group, Somalia, 1980–1996
• "Weapons at War", a World Policy Institute Issue Brief by William D. Hartung, , May 1995, chapter III: Strengthening Potential Adversaries (12th paragraph), Somalia.

 This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook website https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html.