List of emperors of the Han dynasty
The emperors of the Han dynasty were the supreme heads of government during the second imperial dynasty of China; the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) followed the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and preceded the Three Kingdoms (220–265 AD). The era is conventionally divided between the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) and Eastern Han (25–220 AD) periods.
The Han dynasty was founded by the peasant rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gao (r. 202 –195 BC) or Gaodi. The longest reigning emperor of the dynasty was Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC), or Wudi, who reigned for 54 years. The dynasty was briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang, but he was overthrown in 23 AD and the Han dynasty was reestablished by Liu Xiu, known posthumously as Emperor Guangwu (r. 25–57 AD), or Guangwu Di.[2] The last Han emperor, Emperor Xian (r. 189–220 AD), was a puppet monarch of Chancellor Cao Cao (155–220 AD), who dominated the court and was made King of Wei.[3] In 220 AD, Cao's son Pi usurped the throne as Emperor Wen of Wei (r. 220–226 AD) and ended the Han dynasty.
The emperor was the supreme head of government.[4] He appointed all of the highest-ranking officials in central, provincial, commandery, and county administrations.[5] He also functioned as a lawgiver, the highest court judge, commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and high priest of the state-sponsored religious cults.[6]
Naming conventions
Emperor
In ancient China, the rulers of the Shang (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BC) and Zhou (c. 1050 – 256 BC) dynasties were referred to as kings (王 wang).[8] By the time of the Zhou dynasty, they were also referred to as Sons of Heaven (天子 Tianzi).[8] By 221 BC, the King of Qin, Ying Zheng, conquered and united all the Warring States of ancient China. To elevate himself above the Shang and Zhou kings of old, he accepted the new title of emperor (皇帝 huangdi) and is known to posterity as the First Emperor of Qin (Qin Shi Huang). The new title of emperor was created by combining the titles for the Three Sovereigns (Sanhuang) and Five Emperors (Wudi) from Chinese mythology.[9] This title was used by each successive ruler of China until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911.[10]
Posthumous, temple, and era names
From the Shang to Sui (581–618 AD) dynasties, Chinese rulers (both kings and emperors) were referred to by their posthumous names in records and historical texts.[10] Temple names, first used during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han (r. 157–141 BC), were used exclusively in later records and historical texts when referring to emperors who reigned during the Tang (618–907 AD), Song (960–1279 AD), and Yuan (1271–1368 AD) dynasties.[10] During the Ming (1368–1644 AD) and Qing (1644–1911 AD) dynasties, a single era name was used for each emperor's reign and became the preferred way to refer to Ming and Qing emperors in historical texts.[11]
Use of the era name was formally adopted during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC), yet its origins can be traced back further. The oldest method of recording years—which had existed since the Shang—set the first year of a ruler's reign as year one.[12] When an emperor died, the first year of a new reign period would begin.[13] This system was changed by the 4th century BC when the first year of a new reign period did not begin until the first day of the lunar New Year following a ruler's death.[14] When Duke Huiwen of Qin assumed the title of king in 324 BC, he changed the year count of his reign back to the first year.[14] For his newly adopted calendar established in 163 BC, Emperor Wen of Han (r. 180–157 BC) also set the year count of his reign back to the beginning.[15]
Since six was considered a lucky number, Han Emperors Jing and Wu changed the year count of their reigns back to the beginning every six years.[15] Since every six-year period was successively marked as yuannian (元年), eryuan (二元), sanyuan (三元), and so forth, this system was considered too cumbersome by the time it reached the fifth cycle wuyuan sannian (五元三年) in 114 BC.[16] In that year a government official suggested that the Han court retrospectively rename every "beginning" with new characters, a reform Emperor Wu accepted in 110 BC.[17] Since Emperor Wu had just performed the religious feng (封) sacrifice at Mount Taishan, he named the new era yuanfeng (元封). This event is regarded as the formal establishment of era names in Chinese history.[18] Emperor Wu changed the era name once more when he established the 'Great Beginning' (太初 Taichu) calendar in 104 BC.[19] From this point until the end of Western Han, the court established a new era name every four years of an emperor's reign. By Eastern Han there was no set interval for establishing new era names, which were often introduced for political reasons and celebrating auspicious events.[19]
Regents and empress dowagers
At times, especially when an infant emperor was placed on the throne, a regent, often the empress dowager or one of her male relatives, would assume the duties of the emperor until he reached his majority. Sometimes the empress dowager's faction—the consort clan—was overthrown in a coup d'état. For example, Empress Lü Zhi (d. 180 BC) was the de facto ruler of the court during the reigns of the child emperors Qianshao (r. 188–184 BC) and Houshao (r. 184–180 BC).[20] Her faction was overthrown during the Lü Clan Disturbance of 180 BC and Liu Heng was named emperor (posthumously known as Emperor Wen).[21] Before Emperor Wu died in 87 BC, he had invested Huo Guang (d. 68 BC), Jin Midi (d. 86 BC), and Shangguan Jie (上官桀)(d. 80 BC) with the power to govern as regents over his successor Emperor Zhao of Han (r. 87–74 BC). Huo Guang and Shangguan Jie were both grandfathers to Empress Shangguan (d. 37 BC), wife of Emperor Zhao, while the ethnically-Xiongnu Jin Midi was a former slave who had worked in an imperial stable. After Jin died and Shangguan was executed for treason, Huo Guang was the sole ruling regent. Following his death, the Huo-family faction was overthrown by Emperor Xuan of Han (r. 74–49 BC), in revenge for Huo Guang poisoning his wife Empress Xu Pingjun (d. 71 BC) so that he could marry Huo's daughter Empress Huo Chengjun (d. 54 BC).[22]
Since regents and empress dowagers were not officially counted as emperors of the Han dynasty, they are excluded from the list of emperors below.
Emperors
Below is a complete list of emperors of the Han dynasty, including their personal, posthumous, and era names. Excluded from the list are de facto rulers such as regents and empress dowagers.
Han dynasty sovereigns | |||||||
Posthumous name[note 1] | Personal name | Period of reign | Era name | Range of years[note 2] | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Western Han dynasty 202 BC – 9 AD | |||||||
Gaozu | 高祖 | Liu Bang | 劉邦 | 202–195 BC[23] | '[24] | ||
Huidi | 惠帝 | Liu Ying | 劉盈 | 195–188 BC[25] | Did not exist[26] | ||
Shaodi (Shaodi Gong) | 少帝 | Liu Gong | 劉恭 | 188–184 BC[27] | Did not exist[28] | ||
Shaodi (Shaodi Hong) | 少帝 | Liu Hong | 劉弘 | 184–180 BC[27] | Did not exist[29] | ||
Wendi | 文帝 | Liu Heng | 劉恆 | 180–157 BC[30] | Qíanyuán | 前元 | 179–164 BC[31] |
Hòuyuán | 後元 | 163–156 BC[32] | |||||
Jingdi | 景帝 | Liu Qi | 劉啟 | 157–141 BC[30] | Qíanyuán | 前元 | 156–150 BC[33] |
Zhōngyuán | 中元 | 149–143 BC[34] | |||||
Hòuyuán | 後元 | 143–141 BC[35] | |||||
Wudi | 武帝 | Liu Che | 劉徹 | 141–87 BC[36] | Jiànyuán | 建元 | 141–135 BC[37] |
Yuánguāng | 元光 | 134–129 BC[38] | |||||
Yuánshuò | 元朔 | 128–123 BC[39] | |||||
Yuánshòu | 元狩 | 122–117 BC[40] | |||||
Yuándǐng | 元鼎 | 116–111 BC[41] | |||||
Yuánfēng | 元封 | 110–105 BC[42] | |||||
Tàichū | 太初 | 104–101 BC[43] | |||||
Tiānhàn | 天漢 | 100–97 BC[44] | |||||
Tàishǐ | 太始 | 96–93 BC[45] | |||||
Zhēnghé | 征和 | 92–89 BC[46] | |||||
Hòuyuán | 後元 | 88–87 BC[47] | |||||
Zhaodi | 昭帝 | Liu Fuling | 劉弗陵 | 87–74 BC[48] | Shǐyuán | 始元 | 86–80 BC[49] |
Yuánfèng | 元鳳 | 80–75 BC[50] | |||||
Yuánpíng | 元平 | 74 BC[51] | |||||
The Prince of Changyi | 昌邑王 or 海昏侯 | Liu He | 劉賀 | 74 BC[27] | Yuánpíng | 元平 | 74 BC[51] |
Xuandi | 宣帝 | Liu Bingyi | 劉病已 | 74–49 BC[48] | Běnshǐ | 本始 | 73–70 BC[52] |
Dìjié | 地節 | 69–66 BC[53] | |||||
Yuánkāng | 元康 | 65–61 BC[54] | |||||
Shénjué | 神爵 | 61–58 BC[55] | |||||
Wǔfèng | 五鳳 | 57–54 BC[56] | |||||
Gānlù | 甘露 | 53–50 BC[57] | |||||
Huánglóng | 黃龍 | 49 BC[58] | |||||
Yuandi | 元帝 | Liu Shi | 劉奭 | 49–33 BC[59] | Chūyuán | 初元 | 48–44 BC[60] |
Yǒngguāng | 永光 | 43–39 BC[61] | |||||
Jiànzhāo | 建昭 | 38–34 BC[62] | |||||
Jìngníng | 竟寧 | 33 BC[63] | |||||
Chengdi | 成帝 | Liu Ao | 劉驁 | 33–7 BC[59] | Jiànshǐ | 建始 | 32–28 BC[64] |
Hépíng | 河平 | 28–25 BC[65] | |||||
Yángshuò | 陽朔 | 24–21 BC[66] | |||||
Hóngjiā | 鴻嘉 | 20–17 BC[67] | |||||
Yǒngshǐ | 永始 | 16–13 BC[68] | |||||
Yuányán | 元延 | 12–9 BC[69] | |||||
Suīhé | 綏和 | 8–7 BC[69] | |||||
Aidi | 哀帝 | Liu Xin | 劉欣 | 7–1 BC[59] | Jiànpíng | 建平 | 6–3 BC[70] |
Yuánshòu | 元壽 | 2–1 BC[70] | |||||
Pingdi | 平帝 | Liu Kan | 劉衎 | 1–6 AD[59] | Yuánshǐ | 元始 | 1–5 AD[71] |
Ruzi | 孺子 | Liu Ying | 劉嬰 | 6–9 AD[59] | Jùshè | 居攝 | 6–8 AD[72] |
Chūshǐ | 初始 | 8–9 AD[73] | |||||
Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) | |||||||
Xin dynasty of Wang Mang (王莽) | 9–23 AD[74] | Shǐjiànguó | 始建國 | 9–13 AD[75] | |||
Tiānfēng | 天鳳 | 14–19 AD[76] | |||||
Dìhuáng | 地皇 | 20–23 AD[77] | |||||
Continuation of Han dynasty | |||||||
Gengshi-di | 更始帝 | Liu Xuan | 劉玄 | 23–25 AD[78] | Gēngshǐ | 更始 | 23–25 AD[79] |
Eastern Han dynasty 25–220 AD | |||||||
Guangwu-di | 光武帝 | Liu Xiu | 劉秀 | 25–57 AD[80] | Jiànwǔ | 建武 | 25–56 AD[81] |
Jiànwǔzhōngyuán | 建武中元 | 56–57 AD[82] | |||||
Mingdi | 明帝 | Liu Zhuang | 劉庄 | 57–75 AD[83] | Yǒngpíng | 永平 | 57–75 AD[84] |
Zhangdi | 章帝 | Liu Da | 劉炟 | 75–88 AD[85] | Jiànchū | 建初 | 76–84 AD[86] |
Yuánhé | 元和 | 84–87 AD[87] | |||||
Zhānghé | 章和 | 87–88 AD[88] | |||||
Hedi | 和帝 | Liu Zhao | 劉肇 | 88–106 AD[89] | Yǒngyuán | 永元 | 89–105 AD[90] |
Yuánxīng | 元興 | 105 AD[91] | |||||
Shangdi | 殤帝 | Liu Long | 劉隆 | 106 AD[92] | Yánpíng | 延平 | 9 months in 106 AD[93] |
Andi | 安帝 | Liu Hu | 劉祜 | 106–125 AD[94] | Yǒngchū | 永初 | 107–113 AD[95] |
Yuánchū | 元初 | 114–120 AD[96] | |||||
Yǒngníng | 永寧 | 120–121 AD[97] | |||||
Jiànguāng | 建光 | 121–122 AD[97] | |||||
Yánguāng | 延光 | 122–125 AD[98] | |||||
Shaodi, the Marquess of Beixiang | 少帝 or 北鄉侯 | Liu Yi | 劉懿 | 125 AD[99] | Yánguāng | 延光 | 125 AD[98] |
Shundi | 順帝 | Liu Bao | 劉保 | 125–144 AD[100] | Yǒngjiàn | 永建 | 126–132 AD[101] |
Yángjiā | 陽嘉 | 132–135 AD[102] | |||||
Yǒnghé | 永和 | 136–141 AD[103] | |||||
Hàn'ān | 漢安 | 142–144 AD[104] | |||||
Jiànkāng | 建康 | 144 AD[104] | |||||
Chongdi | 沖帝 | Liu Bing | 劉炳 | 144–145 AD[105] | Yōngxī | 永熹 | 145 AD[106] |
Zhidi | 質帝 | Liu Zuan | 劉纘 | 145–146 AD[105] | Běnchū | 本初 | 146 AD[106] |
Huandi | 桓帝 | Liu Zhi | 劉志 | 146–168 AD[107] | Jiànhé | 建和 | 147–149 AD[108] |
Hépíng | 和平 | 150 AD[109] | |||||
Yuánjiā | 元嘉 | 151–153 AD[109] | |||||
Yǒngxīng | 永興 | 153–154 AD[109] | |||||
Yǒngshòu | 永壽 | 155–158 AD[110] | |||||
Yánxī | 延熹 | 158–167 AD[111] | |||||
Yǒngkāng | 永康 | 167 AD[112] | |||||
Lingdi | 靈帝 | Liu Hong | 劉宏 | 168–189 AD[113] | Jiànníng | 建寧 | 168–172 AD[114] |
Xīpíng | 熹平 | 172–178 AD[115] | |||||
Guānghé | 光和 | 178–184 AD[116] | |||||
Zhōngpíng | 中平 | 184–189 AD[117] | |||||
Shaodi, the Prince of Hongnong | 少帝 or 弘農王 | Liu Bian | 劉辯 | 189 AD[99] | Guāngxī | 光熹 | 189 AD[118] |
Zhàoníng | 昭寧 | 189 AD[118] | |||||
Xiandi | 獻帝 | Liu Xie | 劉協 | 189–220 AD[119] | Yǒnghàn | 永漢 | 189 AD[118] |
Chūpíng | 初平 | 190–193 AD[120] | |||||
Xīngpíng | 興平 | 194–195 AD[121] | |||||
Jiàn'ān | 建安 | 196–220 AD[122] | |||||
Yánkāng | 延康 | 220 AD[123] |
See also
Notes
- ↑ The conventional way of referring to these rulers in Chinese is "Han + posthumous name" (for instance "Han Wudi," "Han Jingdi"). Exceptions to this rule include Liu Gong, Liu Hong, Ruzi Ying, the Prince of Changyi, the Marquess of Beixiang, and the Prince of Hongnong. They either died within a year of taking the throne, were removed from power within a year, or were very young and ruled over by a regent during their entire "reign".
- ↑ The years of the Chinese lunisolar calendar do not correspond exactly with the years given in the column for era names. Some years given in the table also belong to two reign periods because some era names were adopted before the beginning of the following year.
Footnotes
- ↑ Paludan (1998), 34–36.
- ↑ Hymes 2000, p. 36.
- ↑ Beck (1986), 354-355.
- ↑ de Crespigny (2007), 1216; Bielenstein (1980), 143; Hucker (1975), 149–150.
- ↑ Wang (1949), 141–142.
- ↑ Wang (1949), 141–143; Ch'ü (1972), 71; Crespigny (2007), 1216-1217.
- ↑ de Visser (2003), 43–49.
- 1 2 Wilkinson (1998), 105.
- ↑ Wilkinson (1998), 105–106.
- 1 2 3 Wilkinson (1998), 106.
- ↑ Wilkinson (1998), 106–107.
- ↑ Wilkinson (1998), 176.
- ↑ Wilkinson (1998), 176–177.
- 1 2 Wilkinson (1998), 177.
- 1 2 Wilkinson (1998), 177; Sato (1991), 278.
- ↑ Wilkinson (1998), 177–178; Sato (1991), 278.
- ↑ Wilkinson (1998), 177–178; Sato (1991), 278–279.
- ↑ Wilkinson (1998), 178; Sato (1991), 278–279.
- 1 2 Wilkinson (1998), 178.
- ↑ Loewe (1986), 135; Hansen (2000), 115–116.
- ↑ Loewe (1986), 136–137; Torday (1997), 78.
- ↑ Loewe (1986), 174–187; Huang (1988), 44–46.
- ↑ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), 28 and Loewe (2000), 253–258.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 433–440.
- ↑ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), 28, 31.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 441–442.
- 1 2 3 Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Twitchett and Loewe (1986), xxxix.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 442–443.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 443.
- 1 2 Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), 28, 33.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 444–446.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 446–447.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 447–448.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 449–452.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 452.
- ↑ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), 28, 36 and Loewe (2000), 273–280.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 452–453.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 454–455.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 456–457.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 457–459.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 459–460.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 460–462.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 463–464.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 467–468.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 468.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 468–470.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 470–471.
- 1 2 Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), 40.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 471–472.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 472–473.
- 1 2 Bo Yang (1977), 473.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 473–475.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 475.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 476.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 477.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 478–479.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 479–480.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 480.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 40, 42.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 481–482.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 482–483.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 483–484.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 484.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 485–486.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 486–487.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 487.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 487–488.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 488–489.
- 1 2 Bo Yang (1977), 489.
- 1 2 Bo Yang (1977), 490.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 495. While traditional sources do not give a exact date when the Yuanshi era was announced, it was implied that the first year of Yuanshi did not start until the first month of the lunar calendar — ergo, in 1 AD. See, e.g., Ban Gu, Book of Han, vol. 12.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 495–496.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 496; Wang Mang became emperor in the 12th month of the era Chushi, which correlates with either January or February 9 AD.
- ↑ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 42–43.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 496–497.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 498–499.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 499–500.
- ↑ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from de Crespigny (2007), 558–560.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977) 500–501.
- ↑ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 44 and de Crespigny (2007), 557–566.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 501–509.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 509.
- ↑ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 44, 49 and de Crespigny (2007), 604–609.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 509–513.
- ↑ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 44, 49 and de Crespigny (2007), 495–500.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 514–515.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 515–516.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 516.
- ↑ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50 and de Crespigny (2007), 588–592.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 517–523.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 523.
- ↑ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50 and de Crespigny (2007), 531.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 524.
- ↑ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50 and de Crespigny (2007), 580–583.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 524–526.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 526–527.
- 1 2 Bo Yang (1977), 528.
- 1 2 Bo Yang (1977), 529.
- 1 2 Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Twitchett and Loewe (1986), xl.
- ↑ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50–51 and de Crespigny (2007), 473–478.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 530–531.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 532.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 532–534.
- 1 2 Bo Yang (1977), 534.
- 1 2 Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50–51.
- 1 2 Bo Yang (1977), 535.
- ↑ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50–51 and de Crespigny (2007), 595–603
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 535–536.
- 1 2 3 Bo Yang (1977), 536.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 536–537.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 537–540.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 541.
- ↑ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50, 52 and de Crespigny (2007), 511–517.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 541–542.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 542–543.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 543–545.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 545–547.
- 1 2 3 Bo Yang (1977), 547.
- ↑ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50, 55.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 547–550.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 551.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 552–564.
- ↑ Bo Yang (1977), 564.
References
- Beck, Mansvelt. (1986). "The Fall of Han," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 317-376. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24327-0.
- Bielenstein, Hans. (1980). The Bureaucracy of Han Times. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22510-8.
- Bo Yang (1977). Timeline of Chinese History (中國歷史年表). Taipei: Sing-Kuang Book Company Ltd.
- Ch'ü, T'ung-tsu. (1972). Han Dynasty China: Volume 1: Han Social Structure. Edited by Jack L. Dull. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-95068-4.
- de Crespigny, Rafe. (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. ISBN 90-04-15605-4.
- Hansen, Valerie. (2000). The Open Empire: A History of China to 1600. New York & London: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-97374-3.
- Huang, Ray. (1988). China: A Macro History. Armonk & London: M.E. Sharpe Inc., an East Gate Book. ISBN 0-87332-452-8.
- Hucker, Charles O. (1975). China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0887-8.
- Hymes, Robert (2000), Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-11004-4.
- Loewe, Michael. (1986). "The Former Han Dynasty," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 103–222. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24327-0.
- Loewe, Michael. (2000). A Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han, and Xin Periods (221 BC - AD 24). Leiden, Boston, Koln: Koninklijke Brill NV. ISBN 90-04-10364-3.
- Paludan, Ann. (1998). Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: the Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. ISBN 0-500-05090-2.
- Sato, Masayuki. "Comparative Ideas of Chronology" History and Theory, Vol. 30, No. 3 (Oct., 1991), pp. 275–301.
- Torday, Laszlo. (1997). Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History. Durham: The Durham Academic Press. ISBN 1-900838-03-6.
- Twitchett, Denis and Michael Loewe. (1986). "Han Emperors" in Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, xxxix-xli. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24327-0.
- de Visser, M.W. (2003). Dragon in China and Japan. Whitefish: Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-5839-X.
- Wang, Yu-ch'uan. "An Outline of the Central Government of the Former Han Dynasty," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 12, No. 1/2 (Jun., 1949): pp. 134–187.
- Wilkinson, Endymion. (1998). Chinese History: A Manual. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Asia Center of the Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-12378-6.
External links
- Chinese History - Han Dynasty 漢 (206 BC-8 AD, 25–220) emperors and rulers, from Chinaknowledge.de
- Media related to Han Dynasty at Wikimedia Commons