Omura's whale

Balaenoptera omurai
Omura's whale
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Clade: Synapsida
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Infraorder: Cetacea
Family: Balaenopteridae
Genus: Balaenoptera
Species: B. omurai
Binomial name
Balaenoptera omurai
Wada et al., 2003

Omura's whale or the dwarf fin whale (Balaenoptera omurai) is a species of rorqual about which very little is known.[2] Before its formal description, it was referred to as a small, "dwarf" or "pygmy" form of Bryde's whale by various sources.[3] The common name and specific epithet commemorate Japanese cetologist Hideo Omura.[4]

The scientific description of this whale was made in Nature in 2003 by three Japanese scientists. They determined the existence of the species by analysing the morphology and mitochondrial DNA of nine individuals – eight caught by Japanese research vessels in the late 1970s in the Indo-Pacific and an adult female collected in 1998 from Tsunoshima, an island in the Sea of Japan. Later, abundant genetic evidence confirmed Omura's whale as a valid species and revealed it to be an early offshoot from the rorqual lineage, diverging much earlier than Bryde's and sei whales. It is perhaps more closely related to its larger relative, the blue whale.[4][5]

In the third edition of Mammal Species of the World, the "species" is relegated to being a synonym of Balaenoptera edeni. However, the authors note that this is subject to a revision of the genus.[6] The database ITIS lists this as a valid taxon, noting a caveat on the disputed systematics of this species, Balaenoptera edeni and Balaenoptera brydei.[7]

Taxonomy

Skull of Omura's whale in National Museum of Natural Science

The six specimens obtained in the Solomon Sea in 1976 were only noted to be smaller at sexual maturity than the "ordinary" Bryde's whales caught off New Zealand, whereas the two caught near the Cocos-Keeling Islands in 1978 were not differentiated from the 118 other "ordinary" Bryde's whales taken in the eastern Indian Ocean, south of Java. As a result of allozyme analysis, their distinctive baleen and small size at physical maturity compared to Bryde's whale, and photographs obtained of the harvested whales (showing their fin whale-like coloration), Dr. Shiro Wada and Kenichi Numachi (1991) decided that these eight individuals represented members of a new species of baleen whale. However, due to the lack of a detailed osteological study and the absence of "conclusive data", the International Whaling Commission decided to consider them only as a regionally distinct group of "small-form Bryde's whale". Despite this declaration, the specific status of the Solomon Sea specimens was supported by a mitochondrial DNA study done by Hideyoshi Yoshida and Hidehiro Kato (1999).[1][8][9][10][11]

The identity of these eight specimens was finally resolved in 1998 when an unidentified whale, which had died after colliding with a fishing boat in the Sea of Japan and was towed to Tsunoshima, was examined by Dr. Tadasu Yamada, Chief of the Division of Mammals and Birds at the National Science Museum, Tokyo. This specimen closely resembled the individuals caught in the 1970s in external appearance and allowed a complete osteological examination of the putative new species to be conducted. As a result of external morphology, osteology, and mitochondrial DNA analysis of two of the harvested whales and the Tsunoshima specimen, Wada, Masayuki Oishi, and Yamada described Balaenoptera omurai in the 20 November 2003 issue of the journal Nature. In honor of the people of Tsunoshima, who helped remove the flesh from the type specimen, it was given the Japanese vernacular name of Tsunoshima kujira (English: Horn Island whale).[4][10]

Holotype and paratypes

The holotype is an 11.03 m (36.2 ft) adult female, NSMT-M32505 (National Science Museum, Tokyo), which stranded at Tsunoshima (34°21′03″N 130°53′09″E / 34.35083°N 130.88583°E / 34.35083; 130.88583) in the southern Sea of Japan on 11 September 1998. It includes a complete skeleton, both complete rows of baleen plates, and frozen pieces of muscle, blubber, and kidney collected by T. K. Yamada, M. Oishi, T. Kuramochi, E. Jibiki, and S. Fujioka. The type locality is the Sea of Japan – which may not be representative of the species’ typical range. The paratypes include the eight specimens (five females and three males), NRIFSF1-8 (National Research Institute of Far Seas Fisheries, Fisheries Research Agency, Shizuoka), collected by Japanese research vessels in the Indo-Pacific in the late 1970s. The longest baleen plate (NRIFSF6 includes 18 more baleen plates), an earplug, and a piece of the sixth thoracic vertebra with associated epiphysis were collected from each individual.[1][4]

Description

Osteology

Omura's whale has several unique skeletal features that distinguish it from its congeners, namely B. brydei and B. edeni. In B. omurai and B. brydei, the posterior end of the ascending process of the maxilla widens to become squarish, whereas in B. edeni, it is slender and round throughout its length. In B. omurai, this widened posterior portion conceals the premaxilla, which disappears below the maxilla and nasal and does not reach the frontal, whereas in both B. brydei and B. edeni, the premaxilla reaches the frontal. The parietals flare laterally in dorsal view in B. omurai and the Indo-Pacific form of B. brydei, but are invisible in dorsal view in B. edeni and the North Pacific form of B. brydei. B. omurai has two small foramina "along the suture between the parietal and squamosal in the posterior wall of the temporal fossa", which both B. brydei and B. edeni lack. B. omurai has an oblique ridge on the dorsal side of the maxilla near the base of the rostrum, which is absent in both B. brydei and B. edeni. Unlike B. edeni, the alisphenoid is separate from the squamosal in B. omurai. The head of the first rib is not bifurcated in B. omurai, unlike B. brydei and B. edeni.[4][12]

Omura's whale has a total of 53 vertebrae, including seven cervical (the standard number among mammals), 13 thoracic, 12 lumbar, and 21 caudal. Like all members of its genus, it has only four digits on the manus of each pectoral fin (the third digit is missing). The phalangeal formula is: I-5, II-7, IV-6, V-3.[4][13]

External appearance

Feeding off Nosy Be, Madagascar

Its appearance resembles the larger fin whale (thus the alternate common names of dwarf fin whale and little fin whale), both having the asymmetrical white, right mandible patch, a white blaze, a dark eye stripe, a white interstripe wash, and a white chevron. It also resembles the fin whale by having pectoral fins with a white anterior border and inner surface and flukes with a white ventral surface and black margins. It has a similar dorsal fin to Bryde's, being upright and falcate – in some individuals it may be extremely falcate. It usually has a more rounded tip than the latter species, which can appear very pointed and even ragged. Unlike Bryde's, however, they have a single prominent median ridge on the rostrum, whereas Bryde's typically have auxiliary ridges on either side. It is estimated to have 80 to 90 ventral grooves that extend past the umbilicus. The type specimen (NSMT-M32505) had 203-208 pairs of baleen plates that were "short and broad with uncurled, stiff, greyish-white fringes", while NRIFSF6 had an estimated 181-190 on the right side – fewer than any other species in its genus. Like the fin whale, NSMT-M32505 exhibited asymmetrical coloration in its baleen, as well: on the right side, the front third are yellowish-white, the intermediate 100 plates are bicolored (dark on the outer side and yellowish-white on the inner side), and the remaining plates in the back were all black, while on the left side, the majority are bicolored with the remaining back plates being all black like the right side. The average length and width for the nine specimens was 26 by 21.4 cm (10.2 by 8.4 in), the smallest length-to-breadth quotient (1.22) for any species in its genus.[2][4]

Size

Omura's whale is among the smallest of the rorquals – only the two species of minke whale, the common and Antarctic, which reach 9.75 and 10.7 m (32.0 and 35.1 ft) in length, respectively, are smaller.[14] Of the eight specimens taken during Japanese whaling in the Indo-Pacific, the five females ranged in length from 10.1 to 11.5 m (33.1 to 37.7 ft), while the three males ranged from 9.6 to 10.0 m (31.5 to 32.8 ft). The females ranged in age from perhaps only 9 years (the earplug was damaged or partially lost) for an 11.2 m (36.7 ft) individual to 29 years for the longest female, whereas the three males ranged from perhaps 21 years (another damaged or partially lost earplug) for the longest male to 38 years for one of the 9.6 m (31.5 ft) specimens. All were physically mature with the exception of the smallest female. Of individuals found stranded in Taiwan and Thailand between 1983 and 2004, five males ranged in length from 5.13 to 10 m (16.8 to 32.8 ft), while two females were 4.3 and 5.95 m (14.1 and 19.5 ft), respectively – a specimen of unknown sex that stranded in 1983 in Phuket Province, Thailand, was 7 m (23.0 ft) in length.[4][12]

Of 16 "Bryde's whales" caught by hunters from Pamilacan between 1991 and 1993, 12 were measured. These cluster into two size categories, nine whales less than 10 m (32.8 ft), and three 12 m (39.4 ft) or more. Later, 85% (24 of 28) of the identified skull specimens examined from the Bohol Sea were found to be Omura's whales, whereas only 15% (4 of 28) were what was tentatively called the Indo-Pacific form of Bryde's whale (B. brydei). The former size category may be primarily (if not entirely) Omura's whale, whereas the larger whales – one of unknown sex of 12 m (39.4 ft) and two females of 13 m (42.7 ft) – would be the larger, offshore form of Bryde's whale. Of those smaller whales, four males ranged from 6.7 to 9.8 m (22.0 to 32.2 ft), four females ranged from 4.9 to 9.3 m (16.1 to 30.5 ft), and one of unknown sex was 9.4 m (30.8 ft).[15][16]

The identify of three mature specimens (two females and a male) examined by biologist Graham Chittleborough in 1958 at a whaling station in Western Australia, which ranged in length from 10.6 to 11.74 m (34.8 to 38.5 ft), is uncertain – they may refer to Omura's whale or the smaller form of Bryde's whale (B. edeni). These three individuals were noted to have very small baleen plates – about 22 cm (8.8 in) by 15 cm (5.9 in), about 22 cm (8.8 in) by 16 cm (6.3 in), and 23.5 by 17.5 cm (9.3 by 6.9 in), respectively – with length-breadth quotients of 1.34 to 1.46, within the upper range (1.00-1.43) of the 9 specimens included in the formal description of Omura's whale, but also within the lower range of the Bryde's whale complex (1.2 to 1.33). The holotype of the smaller form of Bryde's whale (B. edeni) from Myanmar, though, had baleen plates of 30 by 15 cm (11.8 by 5.9 in), or a length-breadth quotient of exactly 2.0 – within the typical range of the Bryde's whale complex (1.8 to 2.4).[1][9][17][18][19]

Mating

Of the three females caught in the Solomon Sea, two were ovulating and lactating and one was resting (not lactating, ovulating, or pregnant), while one of the two females caught near the Cocos Islands was accompanied by a calf estimated to be about 3 m (9.8 ft) in length.[8][9] Nothing is known of the duration of gestation, lactation, or the timing or extent of breeding seasons – a 3.2 m (10 ft) female neonate with fetal folds and folded dorsal fin and flukes did strand at Miyazaki, Miyazaki Prefecture, on the eastern coast of Kyushu, in August 2005.[20][21]

Behavior and diet

Omura's whales in the Komodo National Park have been observed repeatedly lunge feeding, defecating, breaching, and rolling at the surface in apparent mating (the last of which allowed the identification of a male). The diet is not known. The stomach contents of six of the paratypes appear to have been examined, but they were not differentiated from the Bryde's whales caught during the same expedition. Only euphausiids were reported.[1][22] Studies on individuals off northwest Madagascar also reported lunge feeding. It is suggested that Omura's whales prefer shallower and warmer waters, unusual outside of Omura's whale and species closely related to it.[23]

Range

Distribution in western Pacific Ocean

Omura's whale appears to be restricted to the shelf and deep waters of tropical and subtropical regions, with records from the eastern Indian Ocean (off Cocos Islands, Thailand, and Malaysia),[24] Borneo and Indonesia,[25] the Philippines,[26] Hong Kong,[27][28][29] China,[30][31] Taiwan,[32] the Sea of Japan, the Seto Inland Sea,[33] the Timor Sea, New Caledonia,[34] Western[35][36] and South Australia,[37][38] the Solomon Sea,[2][12] Madagascar,[39][40] the Strait of Hormuz,[41] and in the Atlantic ocean from Mauritania[42] and Brazil.[43]

Sightings

In 1999 and 2000, an unidentified species of rorqual was repeatedly seen in the waters of Komodo National Park. They were small (most estimated to be only 7 to 10 m (23 to 33 ft) in length) with asymmetrical coloration similar to the fin whale, only had a single prominent ridge on the rostrum, and an extremely hooked dorsal fin. At first, they were tentatively identified as a "pygmy or regionally distinct" form of Bryde's whale, which was confirmed when one was photographed and biopsied in October 2000 and its tissue sample sent to the Southwest Fisheries Science Center in La Jolla, California. There, its DNA was analyzed and found to be a complete match with a "pygmy Bryde's" sample obtained from the Philippines – later, however, it was discovered samples from the Philippines corresponded to B. omurai and not B. edeni.[1][2][22]

On 26 September 2000, an unidentified balaenopterid was sighted off Rarotonga. It was said to move "through the water like a sei whale, the size resembled a minke whale, the head looked like a blue whale, and the chevron resembled a fin whale". Later, it was suggested to possibly be an Omura's whale, but it lacks the asymmetrical coloration and upright, very hooked dorsal fin typical of species.[44]

During marine mammal surveys conducted in the Solomon Islands in 2009 and 2010, what were "most likely" Omura's whales were sighted on three occasions. They were estimated to be 6 to 10 m (20 to 33 ft) in length and lacked obvious auxiliary ridges. The sightings were made very close to shore (within a few hundred meters), one on the west coast of Malaita in November 2009, one on the northwest coast of Guadalcanal in November 2010, and a pair observed feeding within the Sandfly Passage of the Florida Islands on 14 November 2010.[45]

In May 2008, a pair of possible Omura's whales likely to be of cow - calf, was observed during a birding tour off north of Three Kings Islands, northern New Zealand.[46]

The species may have been sighted off the northwest coast of Australia on three separate occasions in 2009 and 2010. On November 2, 2009, a birder claimed to have seen three individuals – which he estimated to be 15 to 20 m (49 to 66 ft) in length, much longer than the longest reported – northwest of the Bonaparte Archipelago, Western Australia at 13°34′54″S 122°52′15″E / 13.58167°S 122.87083°E / -13.58167; 122.87083;[47] the same day another sighting was made of an estimated 15 m (49 ft) individual north of the Lacepede Islands, Western Australia.[48] In October 2010, a group of birders on a trip from Darwin, Australia, to Ashmore Reef in the Timor Sea, encountered and photographed four groups of about 15 individuals ranging in length from an estimated 10 to 14 m (33 to 46 ft), seeing groups of three or four animals together, as well as at least two cow-calf pairs.[49][50] A smaller-sized rorqual showing coloration resembling either a fin whale or Omura's whale was sighted off the Gulf of Carpentaria between Cape York and the Scott and Seringapatam Reefs during cetacean research expeditions in 2013.[51]

In October 2015, an international team of scientists, led by Salvatore Cerchio of the New England Aquarium and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, released the first images and field observations of the species from a population off northwest Madagascar.[52] Repeated sightings in that same area suggested that this is a resident group.[23]

Hunting and other mortality

Artisanal whaling

As early as the late 19th century, the natives of Lila, Bohol, began hunting whales in the Bohol Sea.[53] By the turn of the century, this had spread to nearby Pamilacan Island and later to Sagay, Camiguin. At Pamilacan, whales were caught as early as January and as late as June, but most were taken in April and May. When a whale was spotted from shore, between 10 and 20 pump boats (boats with motors originally used for pumps) were launched in chase. When within range, a "hookman" jumped atop the whale's head and stabbed it with a 35-cm-long, 22.5-cm-wide stainless steel hook attached to a heavy line of 30 m (98 ft) with a 2 m (6.6 ft) bamboo spar buoy at the end of it – at Camiguin, they harpooned it with a toggle-headed grommet harpoon with a 2.5 m (8.2 ft) wooden shaft similar to the "dolphin irons" used by American whalemen in the mid-19th century, which in turn was either attached to a 140 m (460 ft) rope with a plastic fishing float or a 400 m (1,300 ft) rope with a plastic float or oil drum at the end. After an hour or more, the whale tired, and men took turns cutting it until it died. The boats usually towed the carcass to Lila for butchering, where it was sold and the meat eaten raw or cooked. Pamilacan hunters alone caught 10 to 20 per year, whereas at Camiguin, they caught them only sporadically.[15]

When Maria Louella L. Dolar and colleagues (1994) examined photographs or baleen of the whales caught in the Bohol Sea between 1991 and 1993, they identified them as Bryde's whales; this was supported by osteological examinations of skulls collected from the same sites by Dolar, William F. Perrin, and others (1996), who suggested they were a "small form" of Bryde's whale. The specimens were deposited in the collections of the Marine Research Laboratory of Silliman University in Dumaguete, Negros Oriental, Philippines, where they were examined by T. K. Yamada and co-workers (2008). They discovered that 24 of the skulls were actually from Omura's whales, whereas only four were from the Indo-Pacific Bryde's whale (B. brydei). This was supported by genetic studies, which found that, based on comparison of published phylogenies, the small "Bryde's whales" from the Philippines correspond to Omura's whale.[5][15][16][54]

Scientific whaling

Of the eight individuals taken by Japanese "scientific whaling" in the 1970s, six were processed aboard the factory ship Tonan Maru No. 2 in the Solomon Sea (9°49'-10°17'S, 157°29'-157°56'E) on 24 October 1976, and two were processed aboard the factory ship Nissin Maru No. 3 near the Cocos Islands (10°51′S 97°02′E / 10.850°S 97.033°E / -10.850; 97.033 and 10°53′S 94°29′E / 10.883°S 94.483°E / -10.883; 94.483, respectively) on 15 and 17 November 1978.[4][8][55]

Bycatch

Two individuals, a 9.2 m (30 ft) male at Atami, Shizuoka Prefecture, in October 2003, and a 10.05 m (33.0 ft) female at Futtsu, Chiba Prefecture, in May 2004, were caught in set nets in Japan.[20][56][57]

Conservation

Omura's whale is listed on Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals. It is listed on Appendix II as it has an unfavorable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co-operation organized by tailored agreements.[58]

In addition, Omura's whale is covered by the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region (Pacific Cetaceans MOU).[59]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Balaenoptera omurai". Retrieved January 17, 2012.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Jefferson, Thomas, Marc A. Webber, and Robert L. Pitman (2008). Marine Mammals of the World: A Comprehensive Guide to their Identification. London: Academic. ISBN 9780123838537. OCLC 272382231.
  3. ↑ Ohsumi 1978, Wada and Numachi 1991, Carwardine 1995, Perrin et al. 1996, Kahn 2001, LeDuc and Dizon 2002, Kato 2002, and many others
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Wada, S.; Oishi, M.; Yamada, T.K. (2003). "A newly discovered species of living baleen whale". Nature. 426 (6964): 278–281. Bibcode:2003Natur.426..278W. doi:10.1038/nature02103. OCLC 110553472. PMID 14628049.
  5. 1 2 Sasaki, T.; Nikaido, M.; Wada, S.; Yamada, T.K.; Cao, Y.; Hasegawa, M.; Okada, N. (2006). "Balaenoptera omurai is a newly discovered baleen whale that represents an ancient evolutionary lineage". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 41 (1): 40–52. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.03.032. PMID 16843687.
  6. ↑ Balaenoptera edeni Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M., eds. (2005). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
  7. ↑ "Balaenoptera omura Wada, Oishi, and Yamada, 2003". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  8. 1 2 3 Ohsumi, S. (1978). "Provisional report on Bryde's whales caught under special permit in the Southern Hemisphere". Reports of the International Whaling Commission. 28: 281–288.
  9. 1 2 3 Wada, S., & Numachi, K. I. (1991). Allozyme analyses of genetic differentiation among the populations and species of the Balaenoptera. Genetic ecology of whales and dolphins. Reports of the International Whaling Commission, Special (13): 125-154.
  10. 1 2 Yuko Hashimoto & Michael D. O'Neill (July 7, 2004). "Japanese Scientists Identify New Species of Whale" (PDF). Applied Biosystems: BioBeat Online Magazine. (reprinted on babec.org)
  11. ↑ Yoshida, H.; Kato, H. (1999). "Phylogenetic relationships of Bryde's whales in the western North Pacific and adjacent waters inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences". Marine Mammal Science. 15 (4): 1269–1286. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.1999.tb00890.x.
  12. 1 2 3 Yamada, T. K., L.-S. Chou, S. Chantrapornsyl, K. Adulyanukosol, S. K. Chakravarti, M. Oishi, S. Wada, C.-J. Yao, T. Kakuda, Y. Tajima, K. Arai, A. Umetani & N. Kurihara (2006). Middle sized balaenopterid whale specimens (Cetacea: Balaenopteridae) preserved at several institutions in Taiwan, Thailand, and India. Memoirs of the National Science Museum Tokyo. 44: 1–10.
  13. ↑ Tinker, Spencer Wilkie (1988). Whales of the World. Brill Archive. p. 310. ISBN 9780935848472.
  14. ↑ Horwood, Joseph. (1990). Biology and exploitation of the minke whale. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-6069-2, ISBN 978-0-8493-6069-5
  15. 1 2 3 Dolar, M. L. L.; Leatherwood, S.; Wood, C. J.; Alava, M. N. R.; Hill, C. L.; Arangones, L. V. (1994). "Directed fisheries for cetaceans in the Philippines". Reports of the International Whaling Commission. 44: 439–449.
  16. 1 2 Yamada, T. K., T. Kakuda & Y. Tajima, 2008. "Middle sized balaenopterid whale specimens in the Philippines and Indonesia". Memoirs of the National Science Museum, Tokyo, 45: 75–83.
  17. ↑ Ellis, Richard. 1980. The Book of Whales. Alfred Knopf, New York.
  18. ↑ Best, Peter B. "Two Allopatric Forms of Bryde's Whale off South Africa". Reports of the International Whaling Commission (Special Issue 1), 1977, pp. 10-38.
  19. ↑ Omura, Hidero. (1977). Review of the Occurrence of the Bryde's Whale in the Northwest Pacific. Rep. Int. Commn. (Special Issue 1), pp. 88-91.
  20. 1 2 Yamada, T.K. (2008). Omura's whale (Balaenoptera omurai), pp. 799–801. In Perrin, W.F.P., B. Würsig, and J.G.M. Thewissen, eds., Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals, 2nd ed. Academic Press, San Diego, 1315 pp.
  21. ↑ "Balaenoptera omurai (M-816)". Marine Mammals Stranding Database, National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo. 2009. Retrieved September 2013. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  22. 1 2 Kahn, B. (2001). Komodo National Park Cetacean Surveys: April 2001 and 1999-2001 survey synopsis. Presented working paper CMS/SEAMAMSII/24. United Nations Environment Programme – Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (UNEP/CMS) Second International Conference on the Marine Mammals of Southeast Asia. July 22–23, 2002. Demaguette, Philippines. 39pp.
  23. 1 2 Cerchio, Salvatore; Andrianantenaina, Boris; Lindsay, Alec; Rekdahl, Melinda; Adrianarivela, Norbert; Rasoloarijao, Tahina (14 October 2015). "Omura's whales (Balaenoptera omurai) off northwest Madagascar: ecology, behaviour and conservation needs". Royal Society Open Science. The Royal Society Publishing. doi:10.1098/rsos.150301. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
  24. ↑ Ponnampalam, L.S. (February 2012). Opportunistic observations on the distribution of cetaceans in the Malaysian South China, Sulu and Sulawesi Seas and an updated checklist of marine mammals in Malaysia. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 60(1): 221-231.
  25. ↑ Phillipps Q. and K. Phillipps. (2016). Phillipps’ Field Guide to the Mammals of Borneo and Their Ecology: Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei, and Kalimantan. Princeton University Press, ISBN 9780691169415
  26. ↑ Aragones, L. V.; Roque, M. A.; Flores, M. B.; Encomienda, R. P.; Laule, G. E.; Espinos, B. G.; Braun, R. C. (2010). "The Philippine Marine Mammal Strandings from 1998 to 2009: Animals in the Philippines in Peril?.". Aquatic Mammals. 36 (3): 219. doi:10.1578/am.36.3.2010.219.
  27. ↑ http://www.hkpost.com.hk/index2.php?id=8607#.VtkOHvBf3Mq
  28. ↑ 巨鯨屍擱淺紅石門
  29. ↑ 城大師生花9個月分屍　每塊骨煲20次 自創肉骨茶去油法　製角島鯨標本
  30. ↑ Yang, G.; Liu, H.; Zhou, K.; Guo-Qing, Y. J. (2002). "Identification of a Balaenoptera edeni specimen by using mitochondrial DNA sequences". Chinese Journal of Zoology. 4: 009.
  31. ↑ Wang, H. G.; Fan, Z. Y.; Shen, H.; Peng, Y. J. (2006). "Description of a new record species of whales from Chinese coastal waters". Fisheries Science. 25 (2): 85–87.
  32. ↑ http://chuansong.me/n/2457683
  33. ↑ "Balaenoptera omurai (M-361)". Marine Mammals Stranding Database, National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo. 2009. Retrieved September 2013. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  34. ↑ "Extraordinarily Rare Whale Sighting – Omura's Whale (Balaenoptera omurai)". Marine Education and Research Society. November 2012. Retrieved May 2013. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  35. ↑ BBC News: Carcass of rare whale found on Australia beach (retrieved 14 April 2015).
  36. ↑ Omura's whale: Rare carcass washed up on WA beach to shed light on biology of little-known species, ABC News Online, 14 April 2015
  37. ↑ Bannister, J.L. (2008). Great Whales. Collingwood, Australia: CSIRO Pub.
  38. ↑ "Balaenoptera omurai (M21245)". South Australian Museum Mammalogy Collection, Atlas of Living Australia. 2012. Retrieved August 2013. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  39. ↑ Jefferson, Thomas, Marc A. Webber, and Robert L. Pitman (2015). Marine Mammals of the World: A Comprehensive Guide to their Identification. London: Academic.
  40. ↑ Cerchio S., Andrianantenaina B., Lindsay A., Rekdahl M., Andrianarivelo N., Rasoloarijao T. (2015). "Omura's whales (Balaenoptera omurai) off northwest Madagascar: ecology, behaviour and conservation needs" (pdf). The Royal Society Publishing. The Royal Society Open Science. Retrieved 2015-10-18.
  41. ↑ Sharif Ranjbar S., Dakhteh S.M., Waerebeek V.K. (2016). "Omura's whale (Balaenoptera omurai ) stranding on Qeshm Island, Iran: further evidence for a wide (sub)tropical distribution, including the Persian Gulf" (pdf): 1–9. Retrieved 2016-04-18.
  42. ↑ Jung J.-L*., Mullié W.C.*, Van Waerebeek K.*, Wagne M.M., Samba Ould Bilal A., Ould Sidaty Z.A., Toomey L., Méheust E. and Marret, F. (2015). "Omura's whale off West Africa: autochthonous population or inter-oceanic vagrant in the Atlantic Ocean?". Marine Biology Research. Retrieved 2016-03-03.
  43. ↑ Cypriano-Souza L.A.. Meirelles d O.C.A.. Carvalho L.V.. Bonatto L.S.. 2016. Rare or cryptic? The first report of an Omura's whale (Balaenoptera omurai) in the South Atlantic Ocean. DOI: 10.1111/mms.12348. Marine Mammal Science. Volume 32, Issue 4
  44. ↑ "Unidentified whale sighted 26 September, 2000, off the coast of Rarotonga, Cook Islands". WhaleResearch.org, Center for Cetacean Research & Conservation. 2013. Retrieved August 2013. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  45. ↑ Oremus M.; Leqata J.; Hurutarau J.; Taei S.; Donoghue M.; Thompson K.; Baker C.S. (June 24, 2011). "Solomon Islands Dolphin Project - Progress report on data collection and analyses" (PDF). South Pacific Whale Research Consortium.
  46. ↑ Donnelly D. (2008). Beaked whales off Northland, New Zealand, 16–17 May 2008 retrieved on 30-05-2014
  47. ↑ Papasula
  48. ↑ "Omura's Whale (Photos from 2009)". Rohan Clarke. Retrieved May 2013. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  49. ↑ "Is this a new 'Great Whale'?". Simon Mustoe. 2010. Retrieved May 2013. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  50. ↑ "Darwin and Ashmore Reef Tour Report 12-22 October 2010". Peregrine Bird Tours. 2010. Retrieved September 2013. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  51. ↑ Fremantle to Hobart Blog Chapter 6
  52. ↑ http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-11-01/first-confirmed-sighting-of-omuras-whales-in-the-wild/6902750
  53. ↑ Thomas, Peter; Reeves, Randall R; Brownell, Jr, Robert L (2015). "Status of the world's baleen whales". Marine Mammal Science. doi:10.1111/mms.12281. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
  54. ↑ Perrin, W. E.; Dolar, M. L. L.; Ortega, E. (1996). "Osteological comparison of Bryde's whales from the Philippines with specimens from other regions". Report of the International Whaling Commission. 46: 409–413.
  55. ↑ Ohsumi, S. (1980). "Population study of the Bryde's whale in the Southern Hemisphere under scientific permit in the three seasons, 1976/77 - 1978/79".". Reports of the International Whaling Commission. 30: 319–331.
  56. ↑ "Balaenoptera omurai (M-526f)". Marine Mammals Stranding Database, National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo. 2009. Retrieved September 2013. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  57. ↑ "Balaenoptera omurai (M-651)". Marine Mammals Stranding Database, National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo. 2009. Retrieved September 2013. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  58. ↑ "Appendix II Archived June 11, 2011, at the Wayback Machine." of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). As amended by the Conference of the Parties in 1985, 1988, 1991, 1994, 1997, 1999, 2002, 2005, and 2008. Effective: 5th March 2009.
  59. ↑ Official webpage of the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region
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